From Rags to Riches A Financial History of the NFL

From Rags to Riches A Financial History of the NFL From Rags to Riches: A Financial History of the NFL From Rags to Riches: A Financial History of the NFLFrom a group of four rickety Midwestern football teams to a $14 billion-a-year financial juggernaut, The NFL has come a long way since it was founded in 1920.With the Super Bowl less than two weeks away, we thought it would be a good time to look back at the financial side of the NFL’s almost century-long history. Turns out that before they struck it big on TV, the National Football League was anything but a sure bet. The NFL’s early years saw financial instability and high turnover.If you had told the founders of the NFL that one day the league would be a financial juggernautraking in $14 billion a year and countingâ€"they’d have been surprised, to say the least. When the NFL was formed in 1920 in an auto showroom in Canton, Ohio, it was nothing more than four Ohio-based football teams banding together to make things a little easier for themselves.Those original four teams were the Akron Pros, the Canton Bulldogs, the Clevelan d Indians, and the Dayton Triangles. And when the American Professional Football Association (as it was then known) played its first season later that year, those four teams were joined by ten others, all of them based in the Midwest and almost all of them from small to mid-sized towns like Muncie and Rock Island.Only two of those teams are still with us today. The Decatur Staleys later moved to Chicago and became the Bears, while the Racine Cardinals eventually ended up in Arizona after long stops in Chicago and St. Louis. The Green Bay Packers joined the league in 1921. The following year, the league officially changed its name to the NFL.Those early years were rough going from a financial perspective. Making money from professional football games wasn’t exactly easy, and most of the teams had payrolls held together with spit and rubber bands. As such, teams dropped in and out of the league or outright folded with astonishing regularity. The NFL roster fluctuated year to year wi th a high of 22 teams; it wasn’t until 1936 that league roster saw zero turnover from the previous season.Moving east improved the NFL’s prospects, but baseball and college football  still ruled.After years of instability, the league decided to install some quality control. In 1927, they restricted their membership to twelve teams, all of whom were (relatively) financially stable. Not all of those franchises would survive, but the ones that replaced them were in larger, Eastern cities like Boston, New York, and New York. With the exception of Green Bay, the league’s small-town Midwestern origins were being left behind in favor of the bustling eastern seaboard.Green Bay, by the way, is actually a publicly owned non-profit corporation. Instead of a single owner, they issue “shares” in the team, which are owned by thousands upon thousands of loyal fans. If you’re wondering how they managed to stay in Green Bay all these years, that’s why. Not an Al Davis or Art Modell in sight. (Okay, league-wide revenue-sharing has also helped, but we haven’t gotten to that part yet.)This Eastern migration did help the early NFL draw in more revenue and gain more financial stability. Still, even as the league made slight gains throughout the 1930s, it still struggled, both financially and culturally.One of the biggest problems was the fact that it was completely overshadowed by the college game. Many college football stars saw joining the NFL as a step down from the game they’d played in school. And without high enough salaries to overcome those concerns, many of those same stars choose jobs in regular industries over playing football professionally.World War II saw many NFL players serve overseas, which meant that some teams temporarily merged until they returned. Once the war was over, the national economic boom of the 1950’s lifted the NFL’s prospects as well. Still, it remained a distant second (maybe even third or fourth) next to America’s real pasti me: baseball. As the 1960s dawned it seemed like the NFL was doomed to be a cultural and financial also-ran.The modern NFL is born, all thanks to one man (and millions of TV sets). Enter Pete Rozelle. When the NFL commissioner Bert Bell died in 1959 of a heart attack, the 33 -year-old Los Angeles Rams executive was elected commissioner early the following yearâ€"though only after a whopping 23 ballots. Rozelle understood one thing above all else: The future of football didn’t lie in gate receipts (i.e. money from ticket sales to live games). No, the future of the NFL lay in TV.This might seem like a “no duh” kind of revelation nowadays, but back then it was pretty revolutionary. It was something that the NFL’s main competition, the American Football League (AFL) understood as well. In 1960, the AFL negotiated a two-year contract with ABC worth under $2 million annually to broadcast its games.NFL owners, on the other hand, were skeptical. After all, tickets were their main so urce of revenue. How were they supposed to make money by broadcasting games on TV, which meant that people no longer had to buy tickets in order to see their favorite teams play? And besides, wouldn’t TV money end up turning the big-market teams like New York and Chicago into financial powerhouses, making it impossible for small-market teams like Green Bay to catch up?As it turns out, the AFL also had a slightly revolutionary solution to this problem: Taking the revenue from that TV contract and sharing it equally between all its teams. This promoted financial stability and gave every one of its teams a real chance to succeed. At the very least, it ensured that every team started the year with money in the bank. Revenue-sharing was such a good idea, in fact, that Rozelle wanted to steal it wholesale for the NFL.After the moving the NFL’s headquarters from the tiny Pennsylvania town of Bala-Cynwyd all the way to New York City’s Rockefeller Center, Rozelle set to work negotiatin g the NFL’s new TV deal. What he came away with was a two-year deal with CBS to broadcast every game of the NFL’s 1961 and 1962 seasons. The total price tag? $9.3 million  split evenly between the league’s 14 teams.Here’s what happened next: The CBS deal got blocked in court under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Undeterred, Rozelle started lobbying Congress and the Kennedy administration to get an exemption. After only three months, the Sports Broadcasting Act was passed and signed into law by Kennedy himself. The new law exempted professional football, baseball, basketball, and hockey leagues from antitrust regulations on their broadcast deals.In 1966, the NFL and the AFL announced a merger. While it would take until 1970 for the two leagues to fully combine their operations, some other changes would start immediately. Namely, The 1966 season would be the first one in which the winners of each league played each other for ultimate football supremacy. The name of this game would be … The Super Bowl.The modern NFL is so profitable, its teams might not need actual fans.Last season, the NFL brought in a staggering $8.1 billion in league-wide revenue; add in local revenue, and the total topped $14 billion. Most of that money comes from TV, although the league’s merchandising arm, NFL Propertiesâ€"another Pete Rozelle inventionâ€"has also been a massive moneymaker.In its earliest days, NFL teams struggled to make money. Many were lucky if they could get a couple hundred fans to show up to their game. Nowadays, the importance of TV revenue has made ticket sales something closer to an afterthought. So what if only a few hundred fans show up? When it comes to the Los Angeles Chargers, in fact, the league might accidentally be conducting an experiment to see whether a team can be profitable without any fans at all!To read more about the financial side of history, sports, and pop culture, check out these related posts and articles from OppLoans:The Secret Financ ial History of Voting10 Money Lessons From the Worst Contracts in NBA HistoryMoney at the Movies: Does Box Office Gold Mean a Best Picture Win?The 12 Worst Financial Scandals In HistoryDo you have a personal finance question youd like for us to answer? We want to hear from you! You can find us  on  Facebook  and  Twitter.  |Instagram

Urami and Sympathetic Monstrosity Examining Japanese Folklore - Literature Essay Samples

Early on in his Jungian analysis of Japanese female folk archetypes, Hayao Kawai posits that dangerous supernatural creatures can either represent misunderstood and marginalized people or inscrutably villainous forces of (human) nature, depending on the angle of analysis a reader applies to a tale. His, Akiko Baba’s, and Noriko Reider’s analyses make a case for characters like Yamamba and Yuki-Onna expressing very human feelings of coherent resentment, despite their inhumanly bloodthirsty actions. As readers in this course, we’ve frequently disagreed over how sympathetic one can feel toward any given murderous, cannibalistic, or otherwise violent character, usually based on a personal belief in whether or not their urami is justified. Yet, the possibility of a monster being like us, in the sense that one can locate an emotional or logical underpinning to their otherworldly desires, seems to be fundamental to the monster’s ability to express urami in a stor y. Since urami is crucially defined as an emotion arising from the inner state, the ura, of a character, some invitation into the monster’s ura is necessary for us to believe in its urami. In this way, we get to appreciate the human motives giving rise to supernatural violence. Justified or otherwise, urami monstrosity is sympathetic monstrosity. On the outside, a monster is a literary figure that absolutely resists the reader’s sympathetic identification. Even when portrayed as a sentient anthropomorph, its chimeric and inherently fearsome body destabilizes the readers’ perception of it as a thinking being like themselves. Yamamba, with her grotesque maw on top of her head, and Shuten Doji, with his Carnivalesque parody of a human figure, clearly fit the traditional mold of a repulsive near-human beast. Yuki-Onna, like many ghosts in folklore around the world, lacks the physical vulgarity of obvious monsters, but her appearance of pallid undeath and her mercilessly swift killing power impress upon the reader that, like Yamamba, she is a malign non-human entity simulating a woman’s form. Without splitting hairs about whether or not a yurei like Yuki-Onna counts alongside the male and female Oni as a categorically monstrous type of yokai, we can say these three supernatural figures serve the same narrative function of monsters; they are creatures that evoke fear because they pose a threat to the protagonist, and because they represent that which is considered fearsome in the protagonist’s or the authors’ society. Like many tropes of the fantastic, the appearance of a monster signifies the heightening of stakes in a narrative: the ensuing confrontation will have extraordinary consequences beyond the immediate concerns of the tale’s plot. In the generic Western hero’s journey of patriarchal maturation, the dragon-slaying signifies not just a single man’s escape from danger, but all men’s trial by fire into adulthood and self-determination. In our corpus of urami stories, we’ve often seen a solitary monster’s role expanded to represent the danger thought to be caused by an entire outgroup of people (senile elders in the Oni Mother story, unruly women in Buddhist stories) or the danger posed to whole in-groups by alien forces (city women’s abduction by rural bandits in Shuten Doji, a whole nation’s vulnerability to political machinations in Shiramine). Kawai and Reider grant the Japanese folk monsters they profile a grander symbolic role tha n just representational scariness. Their analyses suggest that Yuki-Onna and Yamamba have a secondary narrative function beyond acting as the bogeymen for traditional Japanese anxieties about two-faced women and geographic outsiders. There are possible interpretations of the two tales that cast these distinctive creatures in a sympathetic light, and thereby teach us the inner workings of an urami-focused thought process. Kawai notes that, while the metaphorical danger of Yamamba might be drawn from the negative aspects of a universal, mysterious mother figure, the mountain hag’s motivation for endangering her victims comes from a palpable, relatable sense of shame. Quoting the poet Baba, Kawai suggests that rather than fear alone, one might also â€Å"feel pity for [the monster], knowing the effort she made in order to have relations with ordinary people† and having witnessed this effort betrayed by the meddling of mortal men. For Kawai, Yamamba becomes a sympathetic character when he considers the double shame she must feel when her grotesque form is revealed and her privacy is violated. In the version of the tale provided in the Appendix, the monster leaps up to attack the false shaman when he guesses at her hidden eating habits, shouting, â€Å"Grr! You must have watched me.† The revelation that a man knows of her shameful form triggers Yamamba’s anger and violence, but the monster’s dialogue indicates that she feels greater disgrace from the invasive way in which the man gained such knowledge. Baba sympathizes with the first of these iniquities, speculating that having her cover blown would be the worst thing to happen to a creature that has tried so hard to fit in. Kawai, on the other hand, sympathizes with Yamamba’s spoken cause for resentment, stating that â€Å"being looked at is the deepest wound for her.† Kawai aligns Yamamba’s enraged reaction with the bitterness of â€Å"the woman in ‘The Bush Warbler’s Home’ who sorrowfully had to leave this world because the ordinary man broke his promise.† Yamamba reacts with monstrous violence and the Bush Warbler woman reacts with sorrowful disappearance, but each figures responds to the same injustice of having her otherworldly nature revealed. The dichotomous reactions of the spirit and the monster both point to urami. The fit of cannibalism an d the melancholic flight both arise from negative emotions in the unconscious – symbolized by the non-daily/non-male spaces of the spirit’s forbidden chamber and the monster’s kitchen – which are then brought out as a grudge against the person who inspired them, but ultimately do more harm to the person feeling such strong resentment. Comparing these first two sides of Kawai’s female archetype reveals a folklorically-exaggerated dichotomy between the two most common urami reactions people have to being shamed. One can feel depressed and seek to hide from the situation (see manifestations of physical and mental illness in the storylines of Kiritsubo from Genji, Naoki from Confessions, the Fifth Nun from Zangemono, etc.) or one can feel enraged and confront it head on (as the demon women tend to do in Kanawa, Zangemono, Konjaku Monogatari, and the Dojoji Temple legend). The sympathetic monstrosity of Yamamba clarifies the logic of the latter reaction. Once we see her urami being instigated by of a man’s disrespect for her boundaries and her own shattered hopes toward fitting in, we can make better sense of her explosive rage. What had hitherto appeared as an inexplicable, perhaps innate, facet of Yamamba’s monstrosity, when viewed as an expression of urami, humanizes both the character and her e xtreme emotions. Interestingly enough, Yuki-Onna can be said to react in an intermediate fashion to Kawai’s two examples, as she threatens violence when her secret is out, but she disappears immediately before she can enact it. Her monstrosity is on full display before she even speaks to the protagonist, so we could guess at other, more ancient causes for her resentment. But, for the purposes of this analysis, we ought to just consider her transformation from wife into ghost, as triggered by the resentment she feels toward the promise-breaking husband. Perhaps Yuki-Onna is not able to match the ferocity of Yamamba because she can’t fit into the same metaphorical niche of unrestrained female fury. This appears to be the case in Lafcadio Hearn’s Kwaidan version of the story, wherein the snow woman says â€Å"But for those children asleep there, I would kill you this moment!† to the man who betrays her. For all her monstrous, murderous rage, this version of Yuki-Onna is restrained by her motherly role from harming the father of her children in front of them. Yamamba, on the other hand, is comfortable with both mothering and killing; she lives mostly uninhibited by expectations of feminine aversion to violence. The key difference between the two is that, hailing from the mountains, Yamamba is a true outsider, whereas Yuki-Onna, though not of this world, has thoroughly integrated into normative human society. The natural elements may become capriciously dangerous every few winters, but city folk have learned to live with them in a way that still eludes them when relating to people from the mountains, whom Reider points out are frequently Othered as barbaric Oni. The other main factor, age, that could lead one of the folk figures to be considered more duty-bound to mothering than to self-preservation, can be disregarded in this comparison between versions of the folktales in which both monsters appear as young wives. In her many years of playing the good wife O-Yuki, Yuki-Onna may have accumulated resentment against her husband, but until her husband finally betrays the secret she has asked him to indulge (a true indulgence, since he has only her murderous threats to bind him to his word), she cannot express it. We sympathize with her because in her terminal anger she also reveals her tragic attachment to the children she must abandon, now that the secret tethering her to the mortal realm is lost. Before disappearing, she tells the husband, â€Å"And now you had better take very, very good care of them; for if ever they have reason to complain of you, I will treat you as you deserve!† In her disappearance, Yuki-Onna shows how fiercely protective she is of her mortal family, and we see that like Yamamba, the snow woman expresses the deepest aspects of her humanity once urami has brought out her most monstrous behavior. In comparison with the unambiguous roots of Yamamba’s bitterness (desire to keep her true form hidden, desire to keep the dignity of not being spied upon) the sources of Yuki-Onna’s resentment seem at first somewhat vague. It is never spelled out in the story why the secret of her identity binds Yuki-Onna to her husband, but one possibility is that it is meant to serve as a symbolic commitment to their unlikely marriage. What might at first seem like an arbitrary threat from an insensate monster could, in retrospect, be viewed as a highly intentional test of love. Since we know urami must have a cause, and Yuki-Onna’s threats of vengeance suggest she has a lot of urami, it’s not too far a reach to find the husband guilty of deeper insults to Yuki-Onna’s ura feelings than just blundering away her disguise. Considering the circumstances of the secret being let out, in which he tells his wife that his first encounter with the ghost was the â€Å"only time that [he] saw a being as beautiful as [her],† the husband’s failure to indulge her bizarre condition of mercy could actually be a failure of his implicit marital promise not to compare his wife with women from his past. Of course, it seems odd or unfair to have that rule hold even when they are different personas of the same woman. Skepticism of Yuki-Onna’s motives, supposing that they might be skewed by jealousy or by a pre-meditated desire to find her husband at fault and have a reason to leave him, is thwarted by the unmistakable clarity of her threat. Before she appears as O-Yuki, Yuki-Onna has already told the husband-to-be, â€Å"If you ever tell anybody – even your own mother about what you have seen this night, I shall know it; and then I will kill you.† One could consider her urami unjustified, but is certainly not illogical. Its harshness adds to the authenticity of her emotion. Once again, like Yamamba, Yuki-Onna shows urami in her monstrosity and then humanity in her urami. The three sides of these characters are inextricably linked. Bibliography Hearn, Lafcadio. Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things. Boston, Mass.: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1904. Text quoted from http://www.sacred-texts.com/shi/kwaidan/kwai12.htm Kawai, Hayao. The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Dallas, Tex.: Spring Publications, 1988. Reider, Noriko T. Japanese Demon Lore Oni, from Ancient times to the Present. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 2010.

Analysis of Main Characters in Murder on the Orient...

The scrapbook is about all the main characters in the book â€Å"Murder on the Orient Express† by: Agatha Christie. They are all important in the book because without them there would not be a book or a story written. They all play an important role in this story, and they help make this story interesting. The first main character in the scrapbook is Hercule Poirot. Hercule Poirot is extremely intelligent, and he is most well known for his curly moustache, and short stature. He is a retired Belgian police officer, and is the most known detective. I put a big guy in a police uniform, and police things around it. It has a police car, badge, flashlight, whistle, hot, and police people. Hercule Poirot and M. Bouc use to be former Belgian police†¦show more content†¦Rachett has kidnapped and murdered Daisy Armstrong for money. The Armstrong family then finds out, that she murdered Daisy and then they murdered Rachett. I put a women who has a lot of money, because she stole it from Daisy. Hector McQueen is Rachett personal secretary; he was a one of the suspect in the case because he was trying to tell Poirot that she did not speak French. I put a man who is covered in papers, and is at a computer and stressed out because she is a secretary. Princess Dragomiroff is a Russian princess; she is an old ugly woman. She told a lot of lies about the other passengers on the train. I put her as a princess, with princess stickers on the next page. Countess Andrenyi is a quite beautiful dark headed woman. She is the sister of Sonia Armstrong. She did not kill Rachett, but people thought she did, and because of that he then tried to hide her true identity, and changed her name on the luggage. I put a beautiful girl who looks quite in a picture, and also a girl in jail. She is trying to hide from that because people thinks that she did kill Rachett. Count Andrenyi is the husband of Countess Andrenyi he tried to take her place in the murder, and helped her hide her identity, and because he is doing that he is becoming a defensive man. I put a man who is confused, and in the picture it is saying, â€Å"What should I do?† He is trying to help his wife hides her identity, and he took the blame for her. CyrusShow MoreRelatedRecurring Themes in the Work of Agatha Christie and Her Lifes Influences on Her Writing3180 Words   |  13 PagesAgatha Christie wrote most of her books with the same recurring themes. One of the themes that Christie has in her books is feminism. The definition of feminism is the belief in the need to protect rights, and opportunities for women to be equal to those of men. It is also saying they can go through life without having a man in their lives and living as independent women. Anti-feminism is the opposite of feminism and says women are all the same and do need a man in their life. Christie use s

The Texas Mission Of Mercy - 843 Words

It wasn’t until participating in the Texas Mission of Mercy (TMOM) that I became interested in dentistry. It all started when my best friend convinced me to join American Student Dental Alliance (ASDA) with her. Initially I was hesitant, but I wanted to try to open up and experiment with careers in college. Although I was a member, I was not as active in the organization at first. However, this all changed when I decided to attend the most promoted event of the year, TMOM. TMOM is an annual event that provides free dental care to low income residents in Texas. I observed and assisted dentists and dental students for the first time. One lady, in particular, was physically abused by her husband, and she had many missing front teeth. The dentist was able to repair her smile and give her the smile she deserved. It was an incredible experience being able to witness the transformation of a person’s confidence. TMOM was the turning point of my life because the people I encoun tered inspired me to pursue dentistry as a career. Another reason why I chose dentistry as a profession is because the connection dentists build with their patients. While I was volunteering at Dentistry from the Heart, an annual event providing free dental treatments, the dentist asked me to try to calm down a crying Vietnamese girl, Hoa, as he waited to finish her extraction. I wanted to keep her mind off of the pain, so I spoke to her in Vietnamese about various topics ranging from cartoons to herShow MoreRelatedThe Texas Mission Of Mercy876 Words   |  4 Pages It was not until participating in the Texas Mission of Mercy (TMOM) that I became interested in dentistry. It all started when my best friend convinced me to join American Student Dental Alliance (ASDA) with her. Initially I was hesitant, but I wanted to try to open up and experiment with careers in college. 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`` Let America Be America Again `` By Langston Hughes And...

Life, liberty, freedom, equality, opportunity, and so many other words have been used to describe the United States of America. Every American child grows up with the words â€Å"the land of the free† pounded into their heads, and every morning schools declare America as a place of â€Å"liberty and justice for all.† Such inflated rhetoric presents America with large shoes to fill. Thus, America’s shortcomings should not be surprising. Langston Hughes and Upton Sinclair were two 20th Century writers, who saw past this idealistic talk and saw the jungle that the United States really was. Langston Hughes wrote in his poem â€Å"Let America be America Again†, â€Å"Let America be America again. –Let it be the dream it used to be. –Let it be the pioneer on the plain –Seeking a home where himself is free. –(America was never America to me) (1).† He highlights not only the experience of African Americans during the 1930s, but identifies with other oppressed groups including immigrants writing, â€Å"I am the immigrant clutching the hope I seek—And finding only the same old stupid plan –Of dog eat dog, of mighty crush the weak.† Likewise, Upton Sinclair conveyed his repulsion to immigrant oppression during the Industrial Revolution in his book The Jungle, emphasizing the gullibility behind trusting the grandiloquence of the American dream. Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle in hopes of empathizing with the American public on behalf of countless immigrants working in slums and corrupt industries during the

Using Aodv Routing Protocol With Parametric Values

PROPOSED MODELS Fig 3. Diagram of processing work The work flow is shown in fig 3. First simulating the MANET using AODV routing protocol with parametric values, which are explained in the section 4.1 . FRAHP, PFGA and PACO optimized models are explained in the subsequent sections. Next, comparing results one with another model to find optimal routing and comparing the performance results and using various calculations here finding the ranked routed from FRAHP model. The assorted enhanced optimized models are described with The following performance metrics 4.1. PERFORMANCE METRICS The five performance metrics involved in this paper are: 1. Number of Hops (C1) : Number of hops or edges involved in the path from source to the destination. Hop or edge is defined as a link between two nodes. Consider a path 1-2-3-4-5 Here source node is 1 and destination node is 5 then C1 is 4. 2. Battery power (C2) : The capacity of power of a node to do any operation in the network is known as battery power of a node in the network at any instant of time. Initially consider the total power of a node is 1. Battery energy of a node is calculated with the below formula C2=1- ( ( s + f + r + d ))/t (18) Where s is send, f is forward, r is received and d is dropped packets through the node. t is total number of packets transmitted in the network. 3. Signal strength (C3) : The energy of a node to access their neighbor nodes to data transfer is called as signal strength of

Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management Free Essays

string(955) " competence areas of public managers Criterion of competence Task competence Performance Professional competence In subject area Development of the policy object In administration Development of policy execution Political competence Legitimacy Ethical competence Justification Known selection of means, implicit goals Formation f instruments out of resources Specification of the policy goal Allocation of the resources Creation and authorization of the goal Creation and detachment of resources for the goal Acceptability of the goal Acceptability of the resources and their instrumentalisation Control of the policy object â€Å"Know-how† of the policy object Contingencies of public service Given goals and means Use of instruments Competence area Value area Motivation Instrumental competence Abilities Control of the policy program Know-how† of cooperation Ideology, interests Possession of power Morality Argumentation Source: Virtanen \(2000\) 1\." Preliminary Study Report Prepared by: Milan Pagon, Emanuel Banutai, Uros Bizjak University of Maribor, Slovenia 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Competencies in General A competence in general can be understood as the ability of an individual to activate, use and connect the acquired knowledge in the complex, diverse and unpredictable situations (Perrenoud, 1997, in Svetlik, 2005).Gruban (2003) defines competencies as the ability to use knowledge and other capabilities, necessary for successful and efficient accomplishment of an appointed task, transaction of work, goal realization, or performance of a certain role in the business process. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now Competencies encompass knowledge, expertise, skills, personal and behavioral characteristics, beliefs, motives, values, etc. They are behavioral records of the roles, which people perform in the work processes.To avoid terminological confusion, Ellstrom (1997; cited in Virtanen, 2000) distinguishes a competence from a qualification. He considers competence as an attribute of an employee referring to â€Å"a kind of human capital or a human resource that can be transformed into productivity† while qualification is understood as â€Å"requirements of a certain class of work tasks (a job)†. 1. 2 Leadership Competencies Changes in organizations are more and more common. They appear at faster pace and employees are expected to be even more adaptable.Leaders play an important role in setting an example for all those values, behaviors and considerations expected from employees. Leaders have to achieve that changes in an organization are accepted and implemented in a way resulting not only in better job performance but also in general understanding and satisfaction of all. Therefore, it is reasonable to set the expectations of key employees – what they should achieve and how they should behave in order to implement successful changes. In other words, which are the important leadership competencies for successful change management? It is necessary to distinguish between leadership competencies in profit organizations and public (as well as not-for-profit) organizations. Nature of activity, context, orientation of work and the budget, to name only a few areas, cause certain distinctions in leadership competencies between these two groups.There is a lack of studies comparing leadership factors and skills relevant to profit, public, and not-for-profit organizations. According to Bennis (1987; cited in Thach et al. , 2007), there are a few leadership competencies that have been proven time and again as mandatory for effective leadership. These include the competency clusters of vision and goal-setting, interpersonal skills, self-knowledge and technical competence regarding the specifics of the business in which the leader works.In addition, commonly referenced competencies include: integrity/honesty, communication, tec hnical competence, diversity consciousness, developing others, results-orientation, change management, interpersonal skills, problem-solving, decision making, political savvy, strategic/visionary thinking, customer focus, business skills, team leadership, influence skills, conflict management, more recently emotional intelligence, social and environmental responsibility, depending on the culture of the organization even humor and innovation (Trinka, 2004; cited in Thach et al. 2007; Spencer and Spencer, 1993; Employer’s Organization, 2004; Guggenheimer and Szule, 1998; Breckenridge Consulting Group, 2004; OPM, 1992; Laszlo, 2003; Goleman, McKee and Boyatzis, 2002; Thompson, 1985). There appear to be minor differences in the not-for-profit and profit leadership competency models. Not-for-profit organizations tend to center around new competencies such as governance effectiveness, boardroom contribution, and service to community (Chait, Ryan and Taylor, 2004; cited in Thach et al. , 2007).On the other hand, profit organizations tend to emphasize financial responsibility and accountability more than non-profit organizations. Public administration organizations tend to emphasize political savvy more, as well as physical health/endurance and building coalitions (Horey and Fallesen, 2003, cited in Thach et al. , 2007; OPM, 1992). 2 Despite diverse definitions and different understanding, competencies can be understood as cognitive, functional and social abilities and skills, including all individual resources one can use for performing diverse tasks in various areas, gaining required knowledge and achieving good results.Every competency is based on a combination of mutually linked cognitive and practical skills, knowledge, motivation, orientation values, beliefs, emotions, and other social and behavioral components, applicable as a whole in an efficient activity (OECD, 2002; cited in Svetlik, 2005). 1. 3 Competency Model A competency model was developed for this study (Figure 1), based on a comprehensive literature review. The model starts with the antecedents of competency development. 1. 3. 1 Antecedents of Competencies DevelopmentAn antecedent is here understood as a precondition for a leader’s individual competency development. One of the purposes of this study is to find out to what extent a particular antecedent is actually associated with a particular leadership competency. Literature review identified various antecedents. However, our model includes the following antecedents: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Primary socialization, Work introduction, Consulting, Characteristic of the environment, and Work experience (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006).In addition, other included antecedents are: †¢ †¢ †¢ Secondary socialization (education, friends) (Cugmas, 1991), Mentoring, coaching, and on-the-job training (Allio, 2005; Kim, 2007), Workshops, individual coaching sessions (Rappe and Zwick, 2007). 1. 3. 2 Leadership Competencies Definition, understanding, and implementation of competencies for selected employees (the leaders in this case) are known as a â€Å"competency model†. This model has to be harmonized with a core philosophy of organization (its vision, mission, values, and goals). Figure 1 – Competency Model Virtanen (2000) explored the generic features of public managers. He presented a model of five competence areas: task competence, professional competence in substantive policy filed, professional competence in administration, political competence and ethical competence (see Table 1). Furthermore, he uttered that much of previous research on managerial competence saw management as a generic profession and the differences between private and public sector were not directly addressed.Task and professional competence are in many ways the same for both sectors, but important differences exist in the areas of political and ethical competencies. In addition, the author argues that the organizational values in the public sector have been in transition, as the traditional values of public service in the Western democracies have been questioned by the imperatives of the new public management (NPM), emerging over the past twenty years. 4In our model, we adopted a view of Medves (2006), who claims that competencies are a conglomerate, consisting of three dimensions: cognitive, functional, and personal/social competencies. Table 1: The competence areas of public managers Criterion of competence Task competence Performance Professional competence In subject area Development of the policy object In administration Development of policy execution Political competence Legitimacy Ethical competence Justification Known selection of means, implicit goals Formation f instruments out of resources Specification of the policy goal Allocation of the resources Creation and authorization of the goal Creation and detachment of resources for the goal Acceptability of the goal Acceptability of the resources and their instrumentalisation Control of the policy object â€Å"Know-how† of the policy object Contingencies of public service Given goals and means Use of instruments Competence area Value area Motivation Instrumental com petence Abilities Control of the policy program Know-how† of cooperation Ideology, interests Possession of power Morality Argumentation Source: Virtanen (2000) 1. You read "Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management" in category "Papers" 3. 2. 1 Cognitive competencies Educational environment in an early age has tremendous impact on cognitive competencies development. Systematic knowledge generates cognitive competencies, including those concepts of spontaneous experiences at the implicit level of knowledge (Medves, 2006). This dimension of competencies includes control of general principles, laws, theories and concepts. Particularly significant cognitive competencies include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Divergent thinking, Critical thinking, Creativity, Problem solving, Strategic thinking, Analytical skills, and Numerical abilities (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006). 5 1. 3. 2. 2 Functional competencies Methodological knowledge generates functional competencies (Medves, 2006). These competencies are qualifications and skills that an individual needs for every day problem solving or to perform a concrete activity.Particularly significant functional competencies include: †¢ †¢ †¢ Language and communication skills, Technological skills (IT, media etc. ), Multicultural competencies (knowledge of a general and other cultures, foreign languages, etc. ), †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Learning abilities and personal development, Career planning skills, Managerial skills, and Decision skills (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006). In addition, other functional competencies are: †¢ †¢ International environment skills, and Globalization skills (Manning, 2003; May, 1997; Jokinen, 2005; Suutari, 2002; Harris, 2001). 1. 3. 2. Personal and social competencies The third dimension consists of competencies, which enable an individual to establish and maintain relationship with others: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Self-direction, Interpersonal skills, Teamwork skills, Compassion, Integrity, Mobilizing skills, Personal and social values, and Ethical dimensions (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006). Additional competencies include: †¢ Character, creativity and compassion (Allio, 2005). 6 1. 3. 3 The Outcome – Successful Change Management Successful change management is an important element of this study, as it represents a criterion for an individual competency assessment.Therefore, basic elements of change management have to be taken into consideration: †¢ How do organizations react to environmental changes and how they try to impact the environment †¢ †¢ How risky are the changes (the role of resilience and firmness) Change as a condition for basic capability planning in order to achieve success in the future †¢ Guided and unguided, planned and unplanned change of organization – a course and the extent of changes †¢ †¢ The meaning of right timing, when to start the change And last but not east, resistance to change and managing it. Change in an organization can be very different. Lorenzi and Riley (2000) identify four types of changes, with the definite possibility of overlap among them: †¢ Operational changes, affecting the way the ongoing operations of the business are conducted †¢ †¢ Strategic changes, that occur in the strategic business direction Cultural changes, which affect the basic organizational philosophies by which the business is conducted †¢ Political changes, occurring in staffing primarily for political reasons of various types. According to the OECD (2007), change management in public administration over the past three decades has been influenced by NPM ideas and techniques resulting in a cultural revolution in the public service (Table 2). 7 Table 2: Cultural transformation in government Traditional Values Instruments of Reform New Cultural Values Citizens empowerment Hierarchies of control Conformity End of lifelong career Policy dialogue Normalization of employment condition Delegation of authority Performance-oriented focus Subtle leadershipAccountability Openness Transparency Efficiency Effectiveness Authority through leadership Managerial culture Impersonality of work Authority through position Command-control paradigm Source: OECD (2007) Managing change from traditional values to new cultural values, as defined in Table 2, enables us to examine and assess successfulness of change management in a particular public administration institution. Outcome indicators, included in our model, are: †¢ â₠¬ ¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢Productivity, Relationship quality, Number of conflicts, Level of cooperation, Organizational culture and climate, Organizational learning curve, Goal attainment, Change implementation, Employee satisfaction, Motivation, Adaptability, Customer satisfaction, and Superior agency’s satisfaction. 8 2 THE EMPIRICAL PART OF THE STUDY This part of the report describes the research conducted to test the competency model described above. 2. 1 Sample 284 public administration managers completed an on-line survey.Those 284 participants were from the following countries (including the European Commission): Country European Commission Austria Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland No. 2 9 4 32 17 3 2 2 3 6 8 7 23 14 % 0. 70 3. 17 1. 41 11. 27 5. 99 1. 06 0. 70 0. 70 1. 06 2. 11 2. 82 2. 46 8. 10 4. 93 Country Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom No. 3 20 6 6 14 2 16 16 0 15 12 3 36 3 1. 06 7. 04 2. 11 2. 11 4. 93 0. 70 5. 63 5. 63 0 5. 28 4. 23 1. 06 12. 68 1. 06 Among the participants, there were 153 (54%) males and 130 (46%) females and one person did not provide an answer to that question. 9 The mean age of the participants was 46. 2 years. Sample included 41 (14. 5%) people with a doctoral degree, 138 (49%) had a master’s degree, 95 (33. 7%) had a university degree, 8 (2. 8%) participants had a high school degree or less, and 2 participants did not answer this question. 172 (61. %) participants reported being in the rank of middle management, while 109 (38. 8%) indicated the rank of top management, and 3 people did not indicate their rank. The mean amount of work experience of the participants was 21. 4 years, while the mean amount of work experience in PA was 16. 5 years, and the mean amount of work experience at the current PA institution was 10 years. The mean amount of work experience in the current position was 3. 6 years. 10 2. 2 Questionnaire Based on the model described in the introduction, we developed a questionnaire.We used several existing scales (The Big Five Factors of personality, Locus of Control, Terminal Values). In addition, based on the reviewed literature, we created scales for measuring the factors of training and environment, individual traits, competencies and successful change management. There were the following sections and scales included in the questionnaire: †¢ Demographics: o Gender o Age o Country o Education o Job Title o Rank o Work Experience o Work Experience in Public Administration (PA) o Work Experience t the Current PA Institution o Work Experience in the Current Position †¢ Questions regarding: o Training o Mentoring o Coaching o Consulting o On-the-Job Training o Characteristics of the Environment †¢ Locus of Control: o Internality, Powerful Others, and Chance Scales (Levenson, 1981) †¢ Values: o Terminal Values from The Value Survey (R okeach, 1967) †¢ Personal Characteristics / Traits: o Sample items – Ambitious, Broadminded, Courageous, Responsible, Ethical.. . 11 †¢Personality: o The Big Five Factors of Personality (the Mini IPIP Scales – Donnellan, Oswald, Baird, ; Lucas, 2006); Factors – Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Intellect / Imagination (or Openness to Experience) †¢ Questions regarding: o Cognitive Competencies o Functional Competencies o Personal / Social Competencies †¢ Questions regarding the Indicators of Successful Change Management in a PA Institution, based on the OECD’s framework, described earlier. We performed factor analyses for the scales measuring competencies, successful change management, and individual characteristics.Seven factors emerged when we performed factor analysis for the competency scale. We named them (shown with sample items): – People skills (I am very sensitive to others’ needs and assumptions; I am very good in bringing out the best in people, etc. ) – Understanding, innovating and changing the organization co nstituents and clients, etc. ) (I have a talent for changing our PA institution’s vision into reality; I thoroughly understand the need, goals, demands, and problems of our PA institution’s -Emotional intelligence and self-control (I have great ability to understand and manage my emotions; I am able to integrate my emotions in my decision making, etc. ) – Planning and decision making (I always verify my assumptions before making a decision; When I face a problem, I take enough time to think before I attempt to solve it, etc. ) – Numbers and logic numbers, etc. ) (I am very good at making complex decisions; I have a good sense for and understanding of – Multicultural skills multicultural teams, etc. ) I feel confident conducting a meeting in a foreign language; I participate effectively in – Learning and using new technologies (I am a quick learner; I am well versed in using a personal computer, etc. ). We grouped them according to our model: Cognitive Competencies o Understanding, innovating and changing the organization 12 o Numbers and logic Functional Competencies o Planning and decision making o Multicultural skills o Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social Competencies o People skills o Emotional intelligence and self-controlWhen we factor analyzed the successful change management it ems, we got three factors, which we named: – Traditional values (Our PA institution relies heavily upon a strict hierarchy of control; In our PA institution, we value uniformity; personality should be kept out, etc. ) – Fear and resistance to change (Change led by our PA institution produces uncertainty and distrust due to lack of information; There is a high level of conflict within our PA institution, etc. ) – New cultural values (All important issues in our PA institution are openly discussed and shared with the public;Leadership of our PA institution is successful in transforming organizational culture, etc. ). Only two factors emerged from the scale for the individual characteristics items. We named them: Personal traits (Ambitious; Broadminded, Capable, etc. ) Gregarious traits (Forgiving, Loving, Cheerful, Obedient, etc. ) 2. 3 Results Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations for the variables included in our study. TABLE 3 Descriptive statisticsa Items Training Internality Powerful others Mean (scale 1-7) Std. dev. 0. 90 0. 64 0. 84 4. 14 5. 26 3. 41 13Chance Personal traits Gregarious traits Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness Planning and decision making People skills Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Emotional intelligence and self-control Multicultural skills Numbers and logic Learning and using new technologies Traditional values Fear and resistance to change New values a 3. 33 5. 82 5. 31 4. 01 5. 19 5. 00 3. 86 5. 00 5. 15 5. 16 5. 31 5. 38 4. 71 4. 90 5. 49 4. 30 3. 44 4. 54 0. 82 0. 59 0. 76 1. 05 0. 89 0. 91 1. 01 0. 95 0. 74 0. 72 0. 71 0. 70 0. 95 0. 94 0. 1 1. 02 1. 10 0. 95 n = 284 Gender, education, and rank comparisons Analysis of variance revealed statistically significant gender differences, where females on average reported more extraversion and agreeableness, and males on average reported higher values for the numbers and logic items. There were no other statistically significant differences between females and males (Table 4). TABLE 4 Results of ANOVA Analysisa Dependent variable: Gender Total Variables: Extraversion Agreeableness Numbers and logic a n = 284 Mean 4. 01 5. 19 4. 90 * Males SD 1. 05 0. 89 0. 94 **Mean 3. 85 5. 08 5. 02 SD 0. 96 0. 89 0. 87 Females Mean 4. 19 5. 34 4. 73 SD 1. 11 0. 88 1. 01 F 7. 05** 5. 76* 6. 27* p ;lt; . 05 p ;lt; . 01 Statistically significant differences also appeared for the education, where those with doctoral degree valued an exciting life higher than did those with university degree. Participants with master’s degree valued happiness higher than did those with doctoral degree. Significant 14 differences occurred also with pleasure, which people with doctoral degree assessed as less important than did people with master’s and university degrees.People with doctoral degree reported higher values for personal traits than did those with high school degree or less. Significant differences also appeared for multicultural skills, where people with doctoral degree reported having more of them than did those with university and high school degree. We also found that people with master’s degree reported having more multicultural skills than did people with high school degree (Table 5). Results of ANOVA Analysisa Dependent variable: Education TABLE 5 Total Doctoral Degree (1) Mean 10. 36 9. 00 5. 03 5. 99 5. 17 ** Master’s Degree (2) Mean 8. 43 11. 21 7. 16 5. 4 4. 76 SD 5. 37 4. 51 4. 89 0. 68 0. 93 University Degree (3) Mean 7. 24 10. 43 7. 74 5. 77 4. 55 SD 4. 99 4. 65 3. 85 0. 46 0. 93 Variables An exciting life Happiness Pleasure Personal traits Multicultural skills a n = 284 Mean 8. 32 10. 65 7. 03 5. 82 4. 71 * SD 5. 31 4. 58 4. 40 0. 59 0. 95 SD 4. 84 4. 40 3. 41 0. 42 0. 86 p ;lt; . 001 High School Degree or less (4) Mean SD 8. 13 7. 12 11. 88 7. 25 5. 34 3. 77 4. 45 3. 28 0. 81 0. 83 Stat. signif. diff. F 3. 27* 2. 66* 3. 62* 2. 85* 7. 10* * 1-3 1-2 1-3, 1-2 1-4 1-3, 1-4, 2-4 p ;lt; . 05 We also performed analysis of variance for differences between the ranks.Statistically significant differences were found for training, where top managers reported higher values than did middle managers. Top managers valued a sense of accomplishment more, while middle managers valued a world of peace more. Top managers on average reported higher values for people skills, understanding, innovating, and changing the organization, emotional intelligence and selfcontrol, numbers and logic, and new cultural values, but also reported lower values for fear and resistance than did their middle management counterparts (Table 6). TABLE 6 Results of ANOVA AnalysisaDependent variable: Rank Total Variables: Training A sense of accomplishment A world of peace People skills Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Emotional intelligence and self Mean 4. 14 9. 52 10. 35 5. 16 5. 31 5. 38 SD 0. 90 4. 87 5. 41 0. 72 0. 71 0. 70 Middle management Mean SD 4. 06 0. 88 8. 96 4. 80 10. 87 5. 29 5. 06 0. 79 5. 21 0. 77 5. 33 0. 73 Top management Mean SD 4. 29 0. 92 10. 30 4. 88 9. 69 5. 51 5. 32 0. 57 5. 49 0. 57 5. 48 0. 63 F 3. 90* 4. 95* 3. 14* 7. 56** 9. 46** 2. 85* 15 control Numbers and logic Fear and resistance to change New values a . 90 3. 44 4. 54 ** 0. 94 1. 10 0. 95 *** 4. 78 3. 59 4. 34 p ;lt; . 001 0. 96 1. 14 1. 01 5. 09 3. 19 4. 86 0. 88 0. 98 0. 75 6. 76** 8. 49** 17. 52*** n = 284 * p ;lt; . 05 p ;lt; . 01 Correlations between competencies Even though the factor analysis revealed seven distinct factors within the competency scale, a further correlation analysis revealed that all of those competencies were statistically significantly correlated, meaning that if a person has one set of competencies more developed, he or she has other competencies more developed, as well (Table 7). TABLE 7 CorrelationsaVariables 1. Planning and decision making 2. People skills 3. Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization 4. Emotional intelligence and self-control 5. Multicultural skills 6. Numbers and logic 7. Learning and using new technologies a 1 2 3 4 5 6 .49* . 54* . 53* . 39* . 53* . 30* .78* . 78* . 55* . 48* . 47* . 71* . 46* . 51* . 43* .53* . 50* . 41* .33* . 48* .40* n = 284 * p ;lt; . 001 Stepwise regression analyses First, we performed a stepwise regression analysis for those characteristics of the PA institutions associated with the traditional values.The analysis revealed that among all independent variables, planning and decision making had the greatest influence on the presence of traditional values, followed by chance, gregarious traits, multicultural skills (negative influence), inner harmony, work experience in PA (negative influence), powerful others, and gender (Table 8). 16 TABLE 8 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysisa (Dependent variable ‘Traditional values’) Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 a Variable entered Planning and decision making Chance Gregarious traits Multicultural skills (-) Inner harmony Total amount of work experience in PA (-) Powerful others Gender (-) R2 . 2123 . 0843 . 0366 . 0306 . 0228 . 0188 . 0177 . 0100 R2 . 2123 . 2965 . 3331 . 3637 . 3865 . 4053 . 4230 . 4330 F 39. 88 17. 60 8. 01 6. 97 5. 35 4. 52 4. 35 2. 49 p ;lt; . 0001 ;lt; . 0001 . 0053 . 0092 . 0222 . 0351 . 0387 . 1168 n = 284 In other words, people with higher competencies for planning and decision making, who believe in chance and powerful others, who have more gregarious traits and value inner harmony more, who are of male gender and poses less multicultural skills, and who have less work experience in PA, are more likely to be found in PA institutions which were judged to be more traditional.We then performed a stepwise regression analysis for characteristics of PA institutions associated with the new cultural values. The analysis revealed that training had the greatest influence on presence of the new cultural values, followed by emotional intelligence and self control, rank in the PA, sense of accomplishment, world of peace, highly regulated legal environment (negative influence), gregarious traits, planning and decision-making (negative influence), and numbers and logic (Table 9). TABLE 9 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysisa (Dependent variable ‘New value s’) Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Variable entered Training Emotional intelligence and self-control Rank in PA A sense of accomplishment A world of peace Highly regulated legal environment (-) Gregarious traits Planning and decision making (-) Numbers and logic ? R2 . 2938 . 0926 . 0512 . 0304 . 0322 . 0118 . 0095 . 0139 . 0109 R2 . 2938 . 3865 . 4377 . 4681 . 5003 . 5121 . 5216 . 5355 . 5464 F 56. 59 20. 38 12. 21 7. 59 8. 51 3. 17 2. 58 3. 86 3. 08 p ;lt; . 0001 ;lt; . 0001 . 0006 . 0067 . 0042 . 0773 . 1105 . 0515 . 0815 n = 284 17This means that the participants, who have more training, who are more emotionally intelligent and have a higher rank in PA, who value a sense of accomplishment and the world of peace more, who work in a less regulated legal environment and have more gregarious traits, who have less competencies for planning and decision making, but more for numbers and logic, are more likely to be found in organizations with the new cultural values. Finally, we conducted a stepwise regression analysis for characteristics of PA institutions associated with fear and resistance to change.Analysis revealed that among all independent variables, chance had the greatest influence on the estimated presence of fear and resistance. Chance was followed by sense of accomplishment (negative influence), rank in PA (negative influence), highly regulated legal environment, salvation, extraversion, social recognition (negative influence), emotional intelligence and self-control (negative influence), planning and decision-making, self-respect, training (negative influence), and increasing competition from the private sector (Table 10).TABLE 10 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysisa (Dependent variable ‘Fear and resistance to change) Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 a Variable entered Chance A sense of accomplishment (-) Rank in PA (-) Highly regulated legal environment Salvation Extraversion Social recognition (-) Emotional intelligence and self-control (-) Planning and decision making Self-respect Training (-) Competition from the private sector ? R2 . 1041 . 0737 . 0265 . 0217 . 0157 . 0160 . 0168 . 0151 . 0253 . 0121 . 0114 . 0153 R2 . 1041 . 778 . 2043 . 2260 . 2603 . 2763 . 2931 . 3082 . 3278 . 3399 . 3513 . 3666 F 17. 31 13. 27 4. 89 4. 10 3. 06 3. 16 3. 38 3. 08 5. 31 2. 58 2. 44 3. 32 p ;lt; . 0001 . 0004 . 0285 . 0447 . 0823 . 0777 . 0679 . 0812 . 0227 . 1107 . 1203 . 0705 n = 284 This tells us that the participants who believe that events depend on chance, who do not value a sense of accomplishment and social recognition, who have lower rank in PA, who work in a highly regulated legal environment, who value salvation and self-respect more, who are more 8 extraverted, who have lower emotional intelligence and more competencies for planning and decision making, who have less training, and who experience greater competition from the private sector, are more likely to work in PA institutions with higher levels of fear and resistance to change. While the findings of the stepwise regression analyses are interesting, they are less clear, as they represent an unstructured mixture of different variables.To introduce some more conceptual clarity, we performed several hierarchical regression analyses, where the researcher determines the order in which groups of variables are entered in a model. Hierarchical regression analyses Table 11 shows the results of hierarchical regression analysis for dependent variable â€Å"Traditional values. TABLE 11 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysisa Dependent variable: Traditional values Functional competencies Planning and decision making Multicultural skills Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social competencies Cognitive competencies Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Numbers and logic Training Training Terminal values (only significant shown) A sense of accomplishment A world of beauty Equality Individual traits Personal traits Gregarious traits Locus of control Internality Powerful others Chance The Big 5 Factors of Personality (only sig. hown) Agreeableness Demographics Environment a * ** n = 284 p ;lt; . 15 p ;lt; . 05 R2 =. 25 ? = . 55**** ? = -. 24** ? = . 07 R2 = . 26 R2 = . 27 ? = -. 22* ? = . 01 R2 = . 27 ? = -. 04 R2 = . 36 ? =-. 25** ? = -. 17* ? = -. 17* R2 = .40 ? = -. 11 ? = . 34** R2 = . 47 ? = . 06 ? = . 20** ? = . 14* R2 = . 49 ? = . 19* R2 = . 51 R2 = . 52 *** p ;lt; . 01 ? R2 = . 25 F = 16. 20**** ?R2 = . 01 ? R2 = . 01 ? R2 = . 001 ? R2 = . 09 F = 0. 68 F = 1. 41 F = 0. 23 F = 1. 06 ?R2 = . 04 F = 3. 44** ?R2 = . 07 F = 5. 54*** ?R2 = . 02 ? R2 = . 02 ? R2 = . 01 **** p ;lt; . 001 F = 0. 89 F = 0. 60 F = 1. 4 19 As can be seen from Table 11, personal / social competencies, training, demographics, and characteristics of the environment did not significantly explain any variance in the dependent variable ‘traditional values. ’ On the other hand, this variance was significantly explained by planning and decision making skills, multicultural skills (negative influence), understanding, innovating, and changing the organization (negative influence), as well as the importance of the following values: a sense of accomplishment, a world of beauty, and equality (all these values had a negative influence).Furthermore, the variance was also significantly explained by gregarious traits, a belief that life is determined by chance and powerful others, as well as agreeableness. Taken together, these variables explain more than half (52%) of variance in ‘traditional values. ’ Table 12 shows the results of hierarchical regression analysis for dependent variable  "Fear and resistance to change. TABLE 12 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysisa Dependent variable: Fear and resistance to change Functional competencies Planning and decision making Multicultural skills Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social competencies People skills Emotional intelligence and self control Cognitive competencies Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Numbers and logic Training Training Terminal values (only significant shown) A sense of accomplishment Individual traits Locus of control Internality Powerful others Chance The Big 5 Factors of Personality (only sign. hown) Extraversion Demographics Environment Highly regulated legal environment Increasing competition from the private sector a * ** n = 284 p ;lt; . 15 p ;lt; . 05 R2 =. 05 ? = . 23** ? = -. 19* ? = . 02 R2 = . 08 ? = . 08 ? = -. 26* R2 = . 11 ? = -. 29** ? = -. 04 R2 = . 12 ? = -. 14** R2 = . 27 ? = -. 32*** R2 = . 27 R2 = . 33 ? = -. 00 ? = . 08 ? = . 21** R2 = . 36 ? = . 19** R2 = . 38 R2 = . 42 ? = . 23** ? = . 1 *** p ;lt; . 01 ? R2 = . 05 F = 2. 58* ?R2 = . 03 ? R2 = . 03 ? R2 = . 01 ? R2 = . 15 ? R2 = . 001 ? R2 = . 06 F = 2. 26* F = 2. 24* F = 2. 96* F = 1. 47* F = 0. 40 F = 3. 39** ?R2 = . 03 ? R2 = . 02 ? R2 = . 04 F = 1. 10 F = 0. 50 F = 3. 12** **** p ;lt; . 001 20 As can be seen from Table 12, individual traits and demographics did not significantly explain any variance in the dependent variable ‘fear and resistance to change. On the other hand, this variance was significantly explained by planning and decision making skills, multicultural skills (negative influence), emotional intelligence and self-control (negative influence), understanding, innovating, and changing the organization (negative influence), training (negative influence), a sense of accomplishment (negative influence), a belief in the importance of chance, extraversion, and highly regulated legal environment.Taken together, these variables were able to explain 42 percent of variance in ‘fear and resistance to change. ’ Table 13 shows the results of hierarchical regression analysis for dependent variable â€Å"New cultural values. TABLE 13 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysisa Dependent variable: New cultural values Functional competencies Plann ing and decision making Multicultural skills Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social competencies People skills Emotional intelligence and self control Cognitive competencies Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Numbers and logic Training Training Terminal values (only significant shown) A sense of accomplishment A world of peace Individual traits Locus of control The Big 5 Factors of Personality Demographics (only significant shown) Rank in PA Environment a * ** n = 284 p ;lt; . 5 p ;lt; . 05 R2 =. 10 ? R2 = . 10 ? = . 09 ? = . 23** ? = . 06 R2 = . 22 ? R2 = . 12 ? = . 35** ? = . 17 R2 = . 25 ? R2 = . 03 ? = . 22* ? = . 16* R2 = . 42 ? R2 = . 17 ? = . 44**** ? R2 = . 12 R2 = . 54 ? = . 26** ? = . 17* R2 = . 55 ? R2 = . 01 2 R = . 55 ? R2 = . 001 2 R = . 56 ? R2 = . 007 2 R = . 61 ? R2 = . 05 ? = . 18** R2 = . 61 ? R = . 002 *** **** p ;lt; . 01 p ;lt; . 001 F = 5. 11*** F = 10. 04**** F = 2. 71* F = 37. 24**** F = 1. 74** F = 0. 89 F = 0. 38 F = 0. 31 F = 1. 42 F = 0. 82As can be seen from Table 13, individual traits, locus of control, personality, and characteristics of the environment did not significantly explain any variance in the dependent variable ‘new cultural values. ’ At the same time, this variance was significantly explained by multicultural skills, people skills, understanding, innovating, and changing the organization, numbers and logic, training, the importance of a sense of accomplishment and a world of peace, as well as the 21 rank in PA. Taken together, these variables explained 61 percent of variance in ‘new cultural values. Correlation analysis for the outcome variables Finally, we investigated the correlations among the outcome variables, namely ‘traditional values,’ ‘fear and resistance to change,’ and ‘new cultural values’ (Table 14). TABLE 14 Correlations among the Outcome Variablesa Variables 1. Traditional values 2. Fear and resistance to change 3. New values a 1 2 .32** -. 16* ** -. 60** n = 284 * p ;lt; . 05 p ;lt; . 001 As expected, there is a significant negative correlation between traditional and new cultural values.The more the traditional values are present, the less the new cultural values exist in a certain PA institution, and vice versa. A significant positive correlation exists between traditional values and fear and resistance to change. The more the traditional values exist in a certain PA institution, the more fear and resistance to change exist in this institution, and vice versa. And finally, a significant negative correlation exists between new cultural values and fear and resistance to change.The more the new cultural values exist in a PA institution, the less fear and resistance to change exist in this institution, and vice versa. This correlation is the strongest among all three. 2. 4 Conclusion The results indicate the following: †¢ Traditional values and new cultural values coexist in PA institutions; they are negatively correlated. 22 †¢ Traditional values are positively correlated with fear and resistance to change; new cultural values are negatively correlated with fear and resistance to change. †¢Traditional values are positively associated with planning and decision-making skills, beliefs in powerful others and chance, agreeableness and gregarious traits. They are negatively associated with multicultural skills, understanding, innovating and changing the organization, as well as with appreciation of a sense of accomplishment, world of beauty, and equality. †¢ Fear and resistance to change are positively associated with planning and decision-making skills, beliefs in chance, as well as with extraversion and highly regulated environment.They are negatively associated with multicultural skills, emotional intelligence and self-control, understanding, innovating and changing the organization, training, as well with appreciation of a sense of accomplishment. †¢ New cultural values are positiv ely associated with multicultural and people skills, understanding, innovating and changing the organization, numbers and logic skills, rank in PA, as well as with appreciation of a sense of accomplishment and world of peace, but— above all—with training.The results stress the importance of the following competencies: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Multicultural skills Understanding, innovating and changing the organization Emotional intelligence and self-control People skills. Planning and decision-making skills were associated with traditional values and with fear and resistance to change. The results also stress the importance of the locus of control, especially the beliefs in powerful others and chance (and their association with traditional values and fear and resistance to change).One of the very important findings was that training has positive effects above and beyond its impact upon the competencies. 23 These results emphasize the significance of implementing new cultural values into the PA institutions. They indicate that replacing the old values with the new values in PA institutions can be achieved by proper training, mentoring and on-the-job training, emotional intelligence and self-control, a proper mind-set of managers (especially the internal locus of control and appreciation of a sense of accomplishment), multicultural skills, and competencies for numbers and logic. R How to cite Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management, Papers