Analysis of Main Characters in Murder on the Orient...

The scrapbook is about all the main characters in the book â€Å"Murder on the Orient Express† by: Agatha Christie. They are all important in the book because without them there would not be a book or a story written. They all play an important role in this story, and they help make this story interesting. The first main character in the scrapbook is Hercule Poirot. Hercule Poirot is extremely intelligent, and he is most well known for his curly moustache, and short stature. He is a retired Belgian police officer, and is the most known detective. I put a big guy in a police uniform, and police things around it. It has a police car, badge, flashlight, whistle, hot, and police people. Hercule Poirot and M. Bouc use to be former Belgian police†¦show more content†¦Rachett has kidnapped and murdered Daisy Armstrong for money. The Armstrong family then finds out, that she murdered Daisy and then they murdered Rachett. I put a women who has a lot of money, because she stole it from Daisy. Hector McQueen is Rachett personal secretary; he was a one of the suspect in the case because he was trying to tell Poirot that she did not speak French. I put a man who is covered in papers, and is at a computer and stressed out because she is a secretary. Princess Dragomiroff is a Russian princess; she is an old ugly woman. She told a lot of lies about the other passengers on the train. I put her as a princess, with princess stickers on the next page. Countess Andrenyi is a quite beautiful dark headed woman. She is the sister of Sonia Armstrong. She did not kill Rachett, but people thought she did, and because of that he then tried to hide her true identity, and changed her name on the luggage. I put a beautiful girl who looks quite in a picture, and also a girl in jail. She is trying to hide from that because people thinks that she did kill Rachett. Count Andrenyi is the husband of Countess Andrenyi he tried to take her place in the murder, and helped her hide her identity, and because he is doing that he is becoming a defensive man. I put a man who is confused, and in the picture it is saying, â€Å"What should I do?† He is trying to help his wife hides her identity, and he took the blame for her. CyrusShow MoreRelatedRecurring Themes in the Work of Agatha Christie and Her Lifes Influences on Her Writing3180 Words   |  13 PagesAgatha Christie wrote most of her books with the same recurring themes. One of the themes that Christie has in her books is feminism. The definition of feminism is the belief in the need to protect rights, and opportunities for women to be equal to those of men. It is also saying they can go through life without having a man in their lives and living as independent women. Anti-feminism is the opposite of feminism and says women are all the same and do need a man in their life. Christie use s

The Texas Mission Of Mercy - 843 Words

It wasn’t until participating in the Texas Mission of Mercy (TMOM) that I became interested in dentistry. It all started when my best friend convinced me to join American Student Dental Alliance (ASDA) with her. Initially I was hesitant, but I wanted to try to open up and experiment with careers in college. Although I was a member, I was not as active in the organization at first. However, this all changed when I decided to attend the most promoted event of the year, TMOM. TMOM is an annual event that provides free dental care to low income residents in Texas. I observed and assisted dentists and dental students for the first time. One lady, in particular, was physically abused by her husband, and she had many missing front teeth. The dentist was able to repair her smile and give her the smile she deserved. It was an incredible experience being able to witness the transformation of a person’s confidence. TMOM was the turning point of my life because the people I encoun tered inspired me to pursue dentistry as a career. Another reason why I chose dentistry as a profession is because the connection dentists build with their patients. While I was volunteering at Dentistry from the Heart, an annual event providing free dental treatments, the dentist asked me to try to calm down a crying Vietnamese girl, Hoa, as he waited to finish her extraction. I wanted to keep her mind off of the pain, so I spoke to her in Vietnamese about various topics ranging from cartoons to herShow MoreRelatedThe Texas Mission Of Mercy876 Words   |  4 Pages It was not until participating in the Texas Mission of Mercy (TMOM) that I became interested in dentistry. It all started when my best friend convinced me to join American Student Dental Alliance (ASDA) with her. Initially I was hesitant, but I wanted to try to open up and experiment with careers in college. 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`` Let America Be America Again `` By Langston Hughes And...

Life, liberty, freedom, equality, opportunity, and so many other words have been used to describe the United States of America. Every American child grows up with the words â€Å"the land of the free† pounded into their heads, and every morning schools declare America as a place of â€Å"liberty and justice for all.† Such inflated rhetoric presents America with large shoes to fill. Thus, America’s shortcomings should not be surprising. Langston Hughes and Upton Sinclair were two 20th Century writers, who saw past this idealistic talk and saw the jungle that the United States really was. Langston Hughes wrote in his poem â€Å"Let America be America Again†, â€Å"Let America be America again. –Let it be the dream it used to be. –Let it be the pioneer on the plain –Seeking a home where himself is free. –(America was never America to me) (1).† He highlights not only the experience of African Americans during the 1930s, but identifies with other oppressed groups including immigrants writing, â€Å"I am the immigrant clutching the hope I seek—And finding only the same old stupid plan –Of dog eat dog, of mighty crush the weak.† Likewise, Upton Sinclair conveyed his repulsion to immigrant oppression during the Industrial Revolution in his book The Jungle, emphasizing the gullibility behind trusting the grandiloquence of the American dream. Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle in hopes of empathizing with the American public on behalf of countless immigrants working in slums and corrupt industries during the

Using Aodv Routing Protocol With Parametric Values

PROPOSED MODELS Fig 3. Diagram of processing work The work flow is shown in fig 3. First simulating the MANET using AODV routing protocol with parametric values, which are explained in the section 4.1 . FRAHP, PFGA and PACO optimized models are explained in the subsequent sections. Next, comparing results one with another model to find optimal routing and comparing the performance results and using various calculations here finding the ranked routed from FRAHP model. The assorted enhanced optimized models are described with The following performance metrics 4.1. PERFORMANCE METRICS The five performance metrics involved in this paper are: 1. Number of Hops (C1) : Number of hops or edges involved in the path from source to the destination. Hop or edge is defined as a link between two nodes. Consider a path 1-2-3-4-5 Here source node is 1 and destination node is 5 then C1 is 4. 2. Battery power (C2) : The capacity of power of a node to do any operation in the network is known as battery power of a node in the network at any instant of time. Initially consider the total power of a node is 1. Battery energy of a node is calculated with the below formula C2=1- ( ( s + f + r + d ))/t (18) Where s is send, f is forward, r is received and d is dropped packets through the node. t is total number of packets transmitted in the network. 3. Signal strength (C3) : The energy of a node to access their neighbor nodes to data transfer is called as signal strength of

Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management Free Essays

string(955) " competence areas of public managers Criterion of competence Task competence Performance Professional competence In subject area Development of the policy object In administration Development of policy execution Political competence Legitimacy Ethical competence Justification Known selection of means, implicit goals Formation f instruments out of resources Specification of the policy goal Allocation of the resources Creation and authorization of the goal Creation and detachment of resources for the goal Acceptability of the goal Acceptability of the resources and their instrumentalisation Control of the policy object â€Å"Know-how† of the policy object Contingencies of public service Given goals and means Use of instruments Competence area Value area Motivation Instrumental competence Abilities Control of the policy program Know-how† of cooperation Ideology, interests Possession of power Morality Argumentation Source: Virtanen \(2000\) 1\." Preliminary Study Report Prepared by: Milan Pagon, Emanuel Banutai, Uros Bizjak University of Maribor, Slovenia 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Competencies in General A competence in general can be understood as the ability of an individual to activate, use and connect the acquired knowledge in the complex, diverse and unpredictable situations (Perrenoud, 1997, in Svetlik, 2005).Gruban (2003) defines competencies as the ability to use knowledge and other capabilities, necessary for successful and efficient accomplishment of an appointed task, transaction of work, goal realization, or performance of a certain role in the business process. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now Competencies encompass knowledge, expertise, skills, personal and behavioral characteristics, beliefs, motives, values, etc. They are behavioral records of the roles, which people perform in the work processes.To avoid terminological confusion, Ellstrom (1997; cited in Virtanen, 2000) distinguishes a competence from a qualification. He considers competence as an attribute of an employee referring to â€Å"a kind of human capital or a human resource that can be transformed into productivity† while qualification is understood as â€Å"requirements of a certain class of work tasks (a job)†. 1. 2 Leadership Competencies Changes in organizations are more and more common. They appear at faster pace and employees are expected to be even more adaptable.Leaders play an important role in setting an example for all those values, behaviors and considerations expected from employees. Leaders have to achieve that changes in an organization are accepted and implemented in a way resulting not only in better job performance but also in general understanding and satisfaction of all. Therefore, it is reasonable to set the expectations of key employees – what they should achieve and how they should behave in order to implement successful changes. In other words, which are the important leadership competencies for successful change management? It is necessary to distinguish between leadership competencies in profit organizations and public (as well as not-for-profit) organizations. Nature of activity, context, orientation of work and the budget, to name only a few areas, cause certain distinctions in leadership competencies between these two groups.There is a lack of studies comparing leadership factors and skills relevant to profit, public, and not-for-profit organizations. According to Bennis (1987; cited in Thach et al. , 2007), there are a few leadership competencies that have been proven time and again as mandatory for effective leadership. These include the competency clusters of vision and goal-setting, interpersonal skills, self-knowledge and technical competence regarding the specifics of the business in which the leader works.In addition, commonly referenced competencies include: integrity/honesty, communication, tec hnical competence, diversity consciousness, developing others, results-orientation, change management, interpersonal skills, problem-solving, decision making, political savvy, strategic/visionary thinking, customer focus, business skills, team leadership, influence skills, conflict management, more recently emotional intelligence, social and environmental responsibility, depending on the culture of the organization even humor and innovation (Trinka, 2004; cited in Thach et al. 2007; Spencer and Spencer, 1993; Employer’s Organization, 2004; Guggenheimer and Szule, 1998; Breckenridge Consulting Group, 2004; OPM, 1992; Laszlo, 2003; Goleman, McKee and Boyatzis, 2002; Thompson, 1985). There appear to be minor differences in the not-for-profit and profit leadership competency models. Not-for-profit organizations tend to center around new competencies such as governance effectiveness, boardroom contribution, and service to community (Chait, Ryan and Taylor, 2004; cited in Thach et al. , 2007).On the other hand, profit organizations tend to emphasize financial responsibility and accountability more than non-profit organizations. Public administration organizations tend to emphasize political savvy more, as well as physical health/endurance and building coalitions (Horey and Fallesen, 2003, cited in Thach et al. , 2007; OPM, 1992). 2 Despite diverse definitions and different understanding, competencies can be understood as cognitive, functional and social abilities and skills, including all individual resources one can use for performing diverse tasks in various areas, gaining required knowledge and achieving good results.Every competency is based on a combination of mutually linked cognitive and practical skills, knowledge, motivation, orientation values, beliefs, emotions, and other social and behavioral components, applicable as a whole in an efficient activity (OECD, 2002; cited in Svetlik, 2005). 1. 3 Competency Model A competency model was developed for this study (Figure 1), based on a comprehensive literature review. The model starts with the antecedents of competency development. 1. 3. 1 Antecedents of Competencies DevelopmentAn antecedent is here understood as a precondition for a leader’s individual competency development. One of the purposes of this study is to find out to what extent a particular antecedent is actually associated with a particular leadership competency. Literature review identified various antecedents. However, our model includes the following antecedents: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Primary socialization, Work introduction, Consulting, Characteristic of the environment, and Work experience (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006).In addition, other included antecedents are: †¢ †¢ †¢ Secondary socialization (education, friends) (Cugmas, 1991), Mentoring, coaching, and on-the-job training (Allio, 2005; Kim, 2007), Workshops, individual coaching sessions (Rappe and Zwick, 2007). 1. 3. 2 Leadership Competencies Definition, understanding, and implementation of competencies for selected employees (the leaders in this case) are known as a â€Å"competency model†. This model has to be harmonized with a core philosophy of organization (its vision, mission, values, and goals). Figure 1 – Competency Model Virtanen (2000) explored the generic features of public managers. He presented a model of five competence areas: task competence, professional competence in substantive policy filed, professional competence in administration, political competence and ethical competence (see Table 1). Furthermore, he uttered that much of previous research on managerial competence saw management as a generic profession and the differences between private and public sector were not directly addressed.Task and professional competence are in many ways the same for both sectors, but important differences exist in the areas of political and ethical competencies. In addition, the author argues that the organizational values in the public sector have been in transition, as the traditional values of public service in the Western democracies have been questioned by the imperatives of the new public management (NPM), emerging over the past twenty years. 4In our model, we adopted a view of Medves (2006), who claims that competencies are a conglomerate, consisting of three dimensions: cognitive, functional, and personal/social competencies. Table 1: The competence areas of public managers Criterion of competence Task competence Performance Professional competence In subject area Development of the policy object In administration Development of policy execution Political competence Legitimacy Ethical competence Justification Known selection of means, implicit goals Formation f instruments out of resources Specification of the policy goal Allocation of the resources Creation and authorization of the goal Creation and detachment of resources for the goal Acceptability of the goal Acceptability of the resources and their instrumentalisation Control of the policy object â€Å"Know-how† of the policy object Contingencies of public service Given goals and means Use of instruments Competence area Value area Motivation Instrumental com petence Abilities Control of the policy program Know-how† of cooperation Ideology, interests Possession of power Morality Argumentation Source: Virtanen (2000) 1. You read "Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management" in category "Papers" 3. 2. 1 Cognitive competencies Educational environment in an early age has tremendous impact on cognitive competencies development. Systematic knowledge generates cognitive competencies, including those concepts of spontaneous experiences at the implicit level of knowledge (Medves, 2006). This dimension of competencies includes control of general principles, laws, theories and concepts. Particularly significant cognitive competencies include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Divergent thinking, Critical thinking, Creativity, Problem solving, Strategic thinking, Analytical skills, and Numerical abilities (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006). 5 1. 3. 2. 2 Functional competencies Methodological knowledge generates functional competencies (Medves, 2006). These competencies are qualifications and skills that an individual needs for every day problem solving or to perform a concrete activity.Particularly significant functional competencies include: †¢ †¢ †¢ Language and communication skills, Technological skills (IT, media etc. ), Multicultural competencies (knowledge of a general and other cultures, foreign languages, etc. ), †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Learning abilities and personal development, Career planning skills, Managerial skills, and Decision skills (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006). In addition, other functional competencies are: †¢ †¢ International environment skills, and Globalization skills (Manning, 2003; May, 1997; Jokinen, 2005; Suutari, 2002; Harris, 2001). 1. 3. 2. Personal and social competencies The third dimension consists of competencies, which enable an individual to establish and maintain relationship with others: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Self-direction, Interpersonal skills, Teamwork skills, Compassion, Integrity, Mobilizing skills, Personal and social values, and Ethical dimensions (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006). Additional competencies include: †¢ Character, creativity and compassion (Allio, 2005). 6 1. 3. 3 The Outcome – Successful Change Management Successful change management is an important element of this study, as it represents a criterion for an individual competency assessment.Therefore, basic elements of change management have to be taken into consideration: †¢ How do organizations react to environmental changes and how they try to impact the environment †¢ †¢ How risky are the changes (the role of resilience and firmness) Change as a condition for basic capability planning in order to achieve success in the future †¢ Guided and unguided, planned and unplanned change of organization – a course and the extent of changes †¢ †¢ The meaning of right timing, when to start the change And last but not east, resistance to change and managing it. Change in an organization can be very different. Lorenzi and Riley (2000) identify four types of changes, with the definite possibility of overlap among them: †¢ Operational changes, affecting the way the ongoing operations of the business are conducted †¢ †¢ Strategic changes, that occur in the strategic business direction Cultural changes, which affect the basic organizational philosophies by which the business is conducted †¢ Political changes, occurring in staffing primarily for political reasons of various types. According to the OECD (2007), change management in public administration over the past three decades has been influenced by NPM ideas and techniques resulting in a cultural revolution in the public service (Table 2). 7 Table 2: Cultural transformation in government Traditional Values Instruments of Reform New Cultural Values Citizens empowerment Hierarchies of control Conformity End of lifelong career Policy dialogue Normalization of employment condition Delegation of authority Performance-oriented focus Subtle leadershipAccountability Openness Transparency Efficiency Effectiveness Authority through leadership Managerial culture Impersonality of work Authority through position Command-control paradigm Source: OECD (2007) Managing change from traditional values to new cultural values, as defined in Table 2, enables us to examine and assess successfulness of change management in a particular public administration institution. Outcome indicators, included in our model, are: †¢ â₠¬ ¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢Productivity, Relationship quality, Number of conflicts, Level of cooperation, Organizational culture and climate, Organizational learning curve, Goal attainment, Change implementation, Employee satisfaction, Motivation, Adaptability, Customer satisfaction, and Superior agency’s satisfaction. 8 2 THE EMPIRICAL PART OF THE STUDY This part of the report describes the research conducted to test the competency model described above. 2. 1 Sample 284 public administration managers completed an on-line survey.Those 284 participants were from the following countries (including the European Commission): Country European Commission Austria Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland No. 2 9 4 32 17 3 2 2 3 6 8 7 23 14 % 0. 70 3. 17 1. 41 11. 27 5. 99 1. 06 0. 70 0. 70 1. 06 2. 11 2. 82 2. 46 8. 10 4. 93 Country Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom No. 3 20 6 6 14 2 16 16 0 15 12 3 36 3 1. 06 7. 04 2. 11 2. 11 4. 93 0. 70 5. 63 5. 63 0 5. 28 4. 23 1. 06 12. 68 1. 06 Among the participants, there were 153 (54%) males and 130 (46%) females and one person did not provide an answer to that question. 9 The mean age of the participants was 46. 2 years. Sample included 41 (14. 5%) people with a doctoral degree, 138 (49%) had a master’s degree, 95 (33. 7%) had a university degree, 8 (2. 8%) participants had a high school degree or less, and 2 participants did not answer this question. 172 (61. %) participants reported being in the rank of middle management, while 109 (38. 8%) indicated the rank of top management, and 3 people did not indicate their rank. The mean amount of work experience of the participants was 21. 4 years, while the mean amount of work experience in PA was 16. 5 years, and the mean amount of work experience at the current PA institution was 10 years. The mean amount of work experience in the current position was 3. 6 years. 10 2. 2 Questionnaire Based on the model described in the introduction, we developed a questionnaire.We used several existing scales (The Big Five Factors of personality, Locus of Control, Terminal Values). In addition, based on the reviewed literature, we created scales for measuring the factors of training and environment, individual traits, competencies and successful change management. There were the following sections and scales included in the questionnaire: †¢ Demographics: o Gender o Age o Country o Education o Job Title o Rank o Work Experience o Work Experience in Public Administration (PA) o Work Experience t the Current PA Institution o Work Experience in the Current Position †¢ Questions regarding: o Training o Mentoring o Coaching o Consulting o On-the-Job Training o Characteristics of the Environment †¢ Locus of Control: o Internality, Powerful Others, and Chance Scales (Levenson, 1981) †¢ Values: o Terminal Values from The Value Survey (R okeach, 1967) †¢ Personal Characteristics / Traits: o Sample items – Ambitious, Broadminded, Courageous, Responsible, Ethical.. . 11 †¢Personality: o The Big Five Factors of Personality (the Mini IPIP Scales – Donnellan, Oswald, Baird, ; Lucas, 2006); Factors – Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Intellect / Imagination (or Openness to Experience) †¢ Questions regarding: o Cognitive Competencies o Functional Competencies o Personal / Social Competencies †¢ Questions regarding the Indicators of Successful Change Management in a PA Institution, based on the OECD’s framework, described earlier. We performed factor analyses for the scales measuring competencies, successful change management, and individual characteristics.Seven factors emerged when we performed factor analysis for the competency scale. We named them (shown with sample items): – People skills (I am very sensitive to others’ needs and assumptions; I am very good in bringing out the best in people, etc. ) – Understanding, innovating and changing the organization co nstituents and clients, etc. ) (I have a talent for changing our PA institution’s vision into reality; I thoroughly understand the need, goals, demands, and problems of our PA institution’s -Emotional intelligence and self-control (I have great ability to understand and manage my emotions; I am able to integrate my emotions in my decision making, etc. ) – Planning and decision making (I always verify my assumptions before making a decision; When I face a problem, I take enough time to think before I attempt to solve it, etc. ) – Numbers and logic numbers, etc. ) (I am very good at making complex decisions; I have a good sense for and understanding of – Multicultural skills multicultural teams, etc. ) I feel confident conducting a meeting in a foreign language; I participate effectively in – Learning and using new technologies (I am a quick learner; I am well versed in using a personal computer, etc. ). We grouped them according to our model: Cognitive Competencies o Understanding, innovating and changing the organization 12 o Numbers and logic Functional Competencies o Planning and decision making o Multicultural skills o Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social Competencies o People skills o Emotional intelligence and self-controlWhen we factor analyzed the successful change management it ems, we got three factors, which we named: – Traditional values (Our PA institution relies heavily upon a strict hierarchy of control; In our PA institution, we value uniformity; personality should be kept out, etc. ) – Fear and resistance to change (Change led by our PA institution produces uncertainty and distrust due to lack of information; There is a high level of conflict within our PA institution, etc. ) – New cultural values (All important issues in our PA institution are openly discussed and shared with the public;Leadership of our PA institution is successful in transforming organizational culture, etc. ). Only two factors emerged from the scale for the individual characteristics items. We named them: Personal traits (Ambitious; Broadminded, Capable, etc. ) Gregarious traits (Forgiving, Loving, Cheerful, Obedient, etc. ) 2. 3 Results Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations for the variables included in our study. TABLE 3 Descriptive statisticsa Items Training Internality Powerful others Mean (scale 1-7) Std. dev. 0. 90 0. 64 0. 84 4. 14 5. 26 3. 41 13Chance Personal traits Gregarious traits Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness Planning and decision making People skills Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Emotional intelligence and self-control Multicultural skills Numbers and logic Learning and using new technologies Traditional values Fear and resistance to change New values a 3. 33 5. 82 5. 31 4. 01 5. 19 5. 00 3. 86 5. 00 5. 15 5. 16 5. 31 5. 38 4. 71 4. 90 5. 49 4. 30 3. 44 4. 54 0. 82 0. 59 0. 76 1. 05 0. 89 0. 91 1. 01 0. 95 0. 74 0. 72 0. 71 0. 70 0. 95 0. 94 0. 1 1. 02 1. 10 0. 95 n = 284 Gender, education, and rank comparisons Analysis of variance revealed statistically significant gender differences, where females on average reported more extraversion and agreeableness, and males on average reported higher values for the numbers and logic items. There were no other statistically significant differences between females and males (Table 4). TABLE 4 Results of ANOVA Analysisa Dependent variable: Gender Total Variables: Extraversion Agreeableness Numbers and logic a n = 284 Mean 4. 01 5. 19 4. 90 * Males SD 1. 05 0. 89 0. 94 **Mean 3. 85 5. 08 5. 02 SD 0. 96 0. 89 0. 87 Females Mean 4. 19 5. 34 4. 73 SD 1. 11 0. 88 1. 01 F 7. 05** 5. 76* 6. 27* p ;lt; . 05 p ;lt; . 01 Statistically significant differences also appeared for the education, where those with doctoral degree valued an exciting life higher than did those with university degree. Participants with master’s degree valued happiness higher than did those with doctoral degree. Significant 14 differences occurred also with pleasure, which people with doctoral degree assessed as less important than did people with master’s and university degrees.People with doctoral degree reported higher values for personal traits than did those with high school degree or less. Significant differences also appeared for multicultural skills, where people with doctoral degree reported having more of them than did those with university and high school degree. We also found that people with master’s degree reported having more multicultural skills than did people with high school degree (Table 5). Results of ANOVA Analysisa Dependent variable: Education TABLE 5 Total Doctoral Degree (1) Mean 10. 36 9. 00 5. 03 5. 99 5. 17 ** Master’s Degree (2) Mean 8. 43 11. 21 7. 16 5. 4 4. 76 SD 5. 37 4. 51 4. 89 0. 68 0. 93 University Degree (3) Mean 7. 24 10. 43 7. 74 5. 77 4. 55 SD 4. 99 4. 65 3. 85 0. 46 0. 93 Variables An exciting life Happiness Pleasure Personal traits Multicultural skills a n = 284 Mean 8. 32 10. 65 7. 03 5. 82 4. 71 * SD 5. 31 4. 58 4. 40 0. 59 0. 95 SD 4. 84 4. 40 3. 41 0. 42 0. 86 p ;lt; . 001 High School Degree or less (4) Mean SD 8. 13 7. 12 11. 88 7. 25 5. 34 3. 77 4. 45 3. 28 0. 81 0. 83 Stat. signif. diff. F 3. 27* 2. 66* 3. 62* 2. 85* 7. 10* * 1-3 1-2 1-3, 1-2 1-4 1-3, 1-4, 2-4 p ;lt; . 05 We also performed analysis of variance for differences between the ranks.Statistically significant differences were found for training, where top managers reported higher values than did middle managers. Top managers valued a sense of accomplishment more, while middle managers valued a world of peace more. Top managers on average reported higher values for people skills, understanding, innovating, and changing the organization, emotional intelligence and selfcontrol, numbers and logic, and new cultural values, but also reported lower values for fear and resistance than did their middle management counterparts (Table 6). TABLE 6 Results of ANOVA AnalysisaDependent variable: Rank Total Variables: Training A sense of accomplishment A world of peace People skills Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Emotional intelligence and self Mean 4. 14 9. 52 10. 35 5. 16 5. 31 5. 38 SD 0. 90 4. 87 5. 41 0. 72 0. 71 0. 70 Middle management Mean SD 4. 06 0. 88 8. 96 4. 80 10. 87 5. 29 5. 06 0. 79 5. 21 0. 77 5. 33 0. 73 Top management Mean SD 4. 29 0. 92 10. 30 4. 88 9. 69 5. 51 5. 32 0. 57 5. 49 0. 57 5. 48 0. 63 F 3. 90* 4. 95* 3. 14* 7. 56** 9. 46** 2. 85* 15 control Numbers and logic Fear and resistance to change New values a . 90 3. 44 4. 54 ** 0. 94 1. 10 0. 95 *** 4. 78 3. 59 4. 34 p ;lt; . 001 0. 96 1. 14 1. 01 5. 09 3. 19 4. 86 0. 88 0. 98 0. 75 6. 76** 8. 49** 17. 52*** n = 284 * p ;lt; . 05 p ;lt; . 01 Correlations between competencies Even though the factor analysis revealed seven distinct factors within the competency scale, a further correlation analysis revealed that all of those competencies were statistically significantly correlated, meaning that if a person has one set of competencies more developed, he or she has other competencies more developed, as well (Table 7). TABLE 7 CorrelationsaVariables 1. Planning and decision making 2. People skills 3. Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization 4. Emotional intelligence and self-control 5. Multicultural skills 6. Numbers and logic 7. Learning and using new technologies a 1 2 3 4 5 6 .49* . 54* . 53* . 39* . 53* . 30* .78* . 78* . 55* . 48* . 47* . 71* . 46* . 51* . 43* .53* . 50* . 41* .33* . 48* .40* n = 284 * p ;lt; . 001 Stepwise regression analyses First, we performed a stepwise regression analysis for those characteristics of the PA institutions associated with the traditional values.The analysis revealed that among all independent variables, planning and decision making had the greatest influence on the presence of traditional values, followed by chance, gregarious traits, multicultural skills (negative influence), inner harmony, work experience in PA (negative influence), powerful others, and gender (Table 8). 16 TABLE 8 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysisa (Dependent variable ‘Traditional values’) Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 a Variable entered Planning and decision making Chance Gregarious traits Multicultural skills (-) Inner harmony Total amount of work experience in PA (-) Powerful others Gender (-) R2 . 2123 . 0843 . 0366 . 0306 . 0228 . 0188 . 0177 . 0100 R2 . 2123 . 2965 . 3331 . 3637 . 3865 . 4053 . 4230 . 4330 F 39. 88 17. 60 8. 01 6. 97 5. 35 4. 52 4. 35 2. 49 p ;lt; . 0001 ;lt; . 0001 . 0053 . 0092 . 0222 . 0351 . 0387 . 1168 n = 284 In other words, people with higher competencies for planning and decision making, who believe in chance and powerful others, who have more gregarious traits and value inner harmony more, who are of male gender and poses less multicultural skills, and who have less work experience in PA, are more likely to be found in PA institutions which were judged to be more traditional.We then performed a stepwise regression analysis for characteristics of PA institutions associated with the new cultural values. The analysis revealed that training had the greatest influence on presence of the new cultural values, followed by emotional intelligence and self control, rank in the PA, sense of accomplishment, world of peace, highly regulated legal environment (negative influence), gregarious traits, planning and decision-making (negative influence), and numbers and logic (Table 9). TABLE 9 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysisa (Dependent variable ‘New value s’) Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Variable entered Training Emotional intelligence and self-control Rank in PA A sense of accomplishment A world of peace Highly regulated legal environment (-) Gregarious traits Planning and decision making (-) Numbers and logic ? R2 . 2938 . 0926 . 0512 . 0304 . 0322 . 0118 . 0095 . 0139 . 0109 R2 . 2938 . 3865 . 4377 . 4681 . 5003 . 5121 . 5216 . 5355 . 5464 F 56. 59 20. 38 12. 21 7. 59 8. 51 3. 17 2. 58 3. 86 3. 08 p ;lt; . 0001 ;lt; . 0001 . 0006 . 0067 . 0042 . 0773 . 1105 . 0515 . 0815 n = 284 17This means that the participants, who have more training, who are more emotionally intelligent and have a higher rank in PA, who value a sense of accomplishment and the world of peace more, who work in a less regulated legal environment and have more gregarious traits, who have less competencies for planning and decision making, but more for numbers and logic, are more likely to be found in organizations with the new cultural values. Finally, we conducted a stepwise regression analysis for characteristics of PA institutions associated with fear and resistance to change.Analysis revealed that among all independent variables, chance had the greatest influence on the estimated presence of fear and resistance. Chance was followed by sense of accomplishment (negative influence), rank in PA (negative influence), highly regulated legal environment, salvation, extraversion, social recognition (negative influence), emotional intelligence and self-control (negative influence), planning and decision-making, self-respect, training (negative influence), and increasing competition from the private sector (Table 10).TABLE 10 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysisa (Dependent variable ‘Fear and resistance to change) Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 a Variable entered Chance A sense of accomplishment (-) Rank in PA (-) Highly regulated legal environment Salvation Extraversion Social recognition (-) Emotional intelligence and self-control (-) Planning and decision making Self-respect Training (-) Competition from the private sector ? R2 . 1041 . 0737 . 0265 . 0217 . 0157 . 0160 . 0168 . 0151 . 0253 . 0121 . 0114 . 0153 R2 . 1041 . 778 . 2043 . 2260 . 2603 . 2763 . 2931 . 3082 . 3278 . 3399 . 3513 . 3666 F 17. 31 13. 27 4. 89 4. 10 3. 06 3. 16 3. 38 3. 08 5. 31 2. 58 2. 44 3. 32 p ;lt; . 0001 . 0004 . 0285 . 0447 . 0823 . 0777 . 0679 . 0812 . 0227 . 1107 . 1203 . 0705 n = 284 This tells us that the participants who believe that events depend on chance, who do not value a sense of accomplishment and social recognition, who have lower rank in PA, who work in a highly regulated legal environment, who value salvation and self-respect more, who are more 8 extraverted, who have lower emotional intelligence and more competencies for planning and decision making, who have less training, and who experience greater competition from the private sector, are more likely to work in PA institutions with higher levels of fear and resistance to change. While the findings of the stepwise regression analyses are interesting, they are less clear, as they represent an unstructured mixture of different variables.To introduce some more conceptual clarity, we performed several hierarchical regression analyses, where the researcher determines the order in which groups of variables are entered in a model. Hierarchical regression analyses Table 11 shows the results of hierarchical regression analysis for dependent variable â€Å"Traditional values. TABLE 11 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysisa Dependent variable: Traditional values Functional competencies Planning and decision making Multicultural skills Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social competencies Cognitive competencies Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Numbers and logic Training Training Terminal values (only significant shown) A sense of accomplishment A world of beauty Equality Individual traits Personal traits Gregarious traits Locus of control Internality Powerful others Chance The Big 5 Factors of Personality (only sig. hown) Agreeableness Demographics Environment a * ** n = 284 p ;lt; . 15 p ;lt; . 05 R2 =. 25 ? = . 55**** ? = -. 24** ? = . 07 R2 = . 26 R2 = . 27 ? = -. 22* ? = . 01 R2 = . 27 ? = -. 04 R2 = . 36 ? =-. 25** ? = -. 17* ? = -. 17* R2 = .40 ? = -. 11 ? = . 34** R2 = . 47 ? = . 06 ? = . 20** ? = . 14* R2 = . 49 ? = . 19* R2 = . 51 R2 = . 52 *** p ;lt; . 01 ? R2 = . 25 F = 16. 20**** ?R2 = . 01 ? R2 = . 01 ? R2 = . 001 ? R2 = . 09 F = 0. 68 F = 1. 41 F = 0. 23 F = 1. 06 ?R2 = . 04 F = 3. 44** ?R2 = . 07 F = 5. 54*** ?R2 = . 02 ? R2 = . 02 ? R2 = . 01 **** p ;lt; . 001 F = 0. 89 F = 0. 60 F = 1. 4 19 As can be seen from Table 11, personal / social competencies, training, demographics, and characteristics of the environment did not significantly explain any variance in the dependent variable ‘traditional values. ’ On the other hand, this variance was significantly explained by planning and decision making skills, multicultural skills (negative influence), understanding, innovating, and changing the organization (negative influence), as well as the importance of the following values: a sense of accomplishment, a world of beauty, and equality (all these values had a negative influence).Furthermore, the variance was also significantly explained by gregarious traits, a belief that life is determined by chance and powerful others, as well as agreeableness. Taken together, these variables explain more than half (52%) of variance in ‘traditional values. ’ Table 12 shows the results of hierarchical regression analysis for dependent variable  "Fear and resistance to change. TABLE 12 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysisa Dependent variable: Fear and resistance to change Functional competencies Planning and decision making Multicultural skills Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social competencies People skills Emotional intelligence and self control Cognitive competencies Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Numbers and logic Training Training Terminal values (only significant shown) A sense of accomplishment Individual traits Locus of control Internality Powerful others Chance The Big 5 Factors of Personality (only sign. hown) Extraversion Demographics Environment Highly regulated legal environment Increasing competition from the private sector a * ** n = 284 p ;lt; . 15 p ;lt; . 05 R2 =. 05 ? = . 23** ? = -. 19* ? = . 02 R2 = . 08 ? = . 08 ? = -. 26* R2 = . 11 ? = -. 29** ? = -. 04 R2 = . 12 ? = -. 14** R2 = . 27 ? = -. 32*** R2 = . 27 R2 = . 33 ? = -. 00 ? = . 08 ? = . 21** R2 = . 36 ? = . 19** R2 = . 38 R2 = . 42 ? = . 23** ? = . 1 *** p ;lt; . 01 ? R2 = . 05 F = 2. 58* ?R2 = . 03 ? R2 = . 03 ? R2 = . 01 ? R2 = . 15 ? R2 = . 001 ? R2 = . 06 F = 2. 26* F = 2. 24* F = 2. 96* F = 1. 47* F = 0. 40 F = 3. 39** ?R2 = . 03 ? R2 = . 02 ? R2 = . 04 F = 1. 10 F = 0. 50 F = 3. 12** **** p ;lt; . 001 20 As can be seen from Table 12, individual traits and demographics did not significantly explain any variance in the dependent variable ‘fear and resistance to change. On the other hand, this variance was significantly explained by planning and decision making skills, multicultural skills (negative influence), emotional intelligence and self-control (negative influence), understanding, innovating, and changing the organization (negative influence), training (negative influence), a sense of accomplishment (negative influence), a belief in the importance of chance, extraversion, and highly regulated legal environment.Taken together, these variables were able to explain 42 percent of variance in ‘fear and resistance to change. ’ Table 13 shows the results of hierarchical regression analysis for dependent variable â€Å"New cultural values. TABLE 13 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysisa Dependent variable: New cultural values Functional competencies Plann ing and decision making Multicultural skills Learning and using new technologies Personal / Social competencies People skills Emotional intelligence and self control Cognitive competencies Understanding, innovating, and changing the organization Numbers and logic Training Training Terminal values (only significant shown) A sense of accomplishment A world of peace Individual traits Locus of control The Big 5 Factors of Personality Demographics (only significant shown) Rank in PA Environment a * ** n = 284 p ;lt; . 5 p ;lt; . 05 R2 =. 10 ? R2 = . 10 ? = . 09 ? = . 23** ? = . 06 R2 = . 22 ? R2 = . 12 ? = . 35** ? = . 17 R2 = . 25 ? R2 = . 03 ? = . 22* ? = . 16* R2 = . 42 ? R2 = . 17 ? = . 44**** ? R2 = . 12 R2 = . 54 ? = . 26** ? = . 17* R2 = . 55 ? R2 = . 01 2 R = . 55 ? R2 = . 001 2 R = . 56 ? R2 = . 007 2 R = . 61 ? R2 = . 05 ? = . 18** R2 = . 61 ? R = . 002 *** **** p ;lt; . 01 p ;lt; . 001 F = 5. 11*** F = 10. 04**** F = 2. 71* F = 37. 24**** F = 1. 74** F = 0. 89 F = 0. 38 F = 0. 31 F = 1. 42 F = 0. 82As can be seen from Table 13, individual traits, locus of control, personality, and characteristics of the environment did not significantly explain any variance in the dependent variable ‘new cultural values. ’ At the same time, this variance was significantly explained by multicultural skills, people skills, understanding, innovating, and changing the organization, numbers and logic, training, the importance of a sense of accomplishment and a world of peace, as well as the 21 rank in PA. Taken together, these variables explained 61 percent of variance in ‘new cultural values. Correlation analysis for the outcome variables Finally, we investigated the correlations among the outcome variables, namely ‘traditional values,’ ‘fear and resistance to change,’ and ‘new cultural values’ (Table 14). TABLE 14 Correlations among the Outcome Variablesa Variables 1. Traditional values 2. Fear and resistance to change 3. New values a 1 2 .32** -. 16* ** -. 60** n = 284 * p ;lt; . 05 p ;lt; . 001 As expected, there is a significant negative correlation between traditional and new cultural values.The more the traditional values are present, the less the new cultural values exist in a certain PA institution, and vice versa. A significant positive correlation exists between traditional values and fear and resistance to change. The more the traditional values exist in a certain PA institution, the more fear and resistance to change exist in this institution, and vice versa. And finally, a significant negative correlation exists between new cultural values and fear and resistance to change.The more the new cultural values exist in a PA institution, the less fear and resistance to change exist in this institution, and vice versa. This correlation is the strongest among all three. 2. 4 Conclusion The results indicate the following: †¢ Traditional values and new cultural values coexist in PA institutions; they are negatively correlated. 22 †¢ Traditional values are positively correlated with fear and resistance to change; new cultural values are negatively correlated with fear and resistance to change. †¢Traditional values are positively associated with planning and decision-making skills, beliefs in powerful others and chance, agreeableness and gregarious traits. They are negatively associated with multicultural skills, understanding, innovating and changing the organization, as well as with appreciation of a sense of accomplishment, world of beauty, and equality. †¢ Fear and resistance to change are positively associated with planning and decision-making skills, beliefs in chance, as well as with extraversion and highly regulated environment.They are negatively associated with multicultural skills, emotional intelligence and self-control, understanding, innovating and changing the organization, training, as well with appreciation of a sense of accomplishment. †¢ New cultural values are positiv ely associated with multicultural and people skills, understanding, innovating and changing the organization, numbers and logic skills, rank in PA, as well as with appreciation of a sense of accomplishment and world of peace, but— above all—with training.The results stress the importance of the following competencies: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Multicultural skills Understanding, innovating and changing the organization Emotional intelligence and self-control People skills. Planning and decision-making skills were associated with traditional values and with fear and resistance to change. The results also stress the importance of the locus of control, especially the beliefs in powerful others and chance (and their association with traditional values and fear and resistance to change).One of the very important findings was that training has positive effects above and beyond its impact upon the competencies. 23 These results emphasize the significance of implementing new cultural values into the PA institutions. They indicate that replacing the old values with the new values in PA institutions can be achieved by proper training, mentoring and on-the-job training, emotional intelligence and self-control, a proper mind-set of managers (especially the internal locus of control and appreciation of a sense of accomplishment), multicultural skills, and competencies for numbers and logic. R How to cite Leadership Competencies for Succesful Change Management, Papers

The Role of Civic Education Essay Example For Students

The Role of Civic Education Essay The Role of Civic EducationI. IntroductionSocieties have long had an interest in the ways in which their young are prepared for citizenship and in how they learn to take part in civic life. Today that interest might better be described as a concern-in fact as a growing concern, particularly in democratic societies. There is evidence aplenty that no country, including our own United States, has achieved the level of understanding and acceptance of the rights and responsibilities among the totality of its citizens that is required for the maintenance and improvement of any constitutional democracy. In the past decade we have witnessed dramatic demands for freedom on the part of peoples from Asia to Africa and from Central and Eastern Europe to Latin America. And as we have seen one totalitarian or authoritarian regime after another toppled and fledgling democratic governments replace them, we may have become too optimistic about the future of democracy. We also may have become too complacent, too sure of democracys robustness or of its long term viability. History, however, teaches us that few countries have sustained democratic governments for prolonged periods, a lesson which we as Americans are sometimes inclined to forget. Americans, of course, should take pride and confidence from the fact that they live in the worlds oldest constitutional democracy and that the philosophical foundations underlying their political institutions serve as a model for aspiring peoples around the world. The shot heard round the world two centuries ago at the opening of the American Revolution c ontinues to resound today, and it should remind Americans that free institutions are among humanitys highest achievements and worthy of their full energies and earnest devotion to preserve. Americans also should realize that civic education is essential to sustain our constitutional democracy. The habits of the mind, as well as habits of the heart, the dispositions that inform the democratic ethos, are not inherited. As Alexis de Toqueville pointed out, each new generation is a new people that must acquire the knowledge, learn the skills, and develop the dispositions or traits of private and public character that undergird a constitutional democracy. Those dispositions must be fostered and nurtured by word and study and by the power of example. Democracy is not a machine that would go of itself, but must be consciously reproduced, one generation after another. Civic education, therefore, is-or should be-a prime concern. There is no more important task than the development of an informed, effective, and responsible citizenry. Democracies are sustained by citizens who have the requisite knowledge, skills, and dispositions. Absent a reasoned commitment on the part of its citizens to the fundamental values and principles of democracy, a free and open society cannot succeed. It is imperative, therefore, that educators, policymakers, and members of civil society make the case and ask for the support of civic education from all segments of society and from the widest range of institutions and governments. It is relatively easy for a society to produce technically competent people. But the kind of society Americans want to live in and the kind of government they want to have requires effort and commitment on the part of its citizens. Americans want a society and a governmentin which human rights are respectedin which the individuals dignity and worth are acknowledgedin which the rule of law is observedin which people willingly fulfill their responsibilities, andin which the common good is the concern of all. Making that kind of society, that kind of government a reality is the most important challenge Americans face and the most important work they could undertake. II.What is civic education?Civic Education in a democracy is education in self government. Democratic self government means that citizens are actively involved in their own governance; they do not just passively accept the dictums of others or acquiesce to the demands of others. As Aristotle put it in his Politics (c 340 BC), If liberty and equality, as is thought by some, are chiefly to be found in democracy, they will be attained when all persons alike share in the government to the utmost. In other words, the ideals of democracy are most completely realized when every member of the political community shares in its governance. Members of the political community are its citizens, hence citizenship in a democracy is membership in the body politic. Membership implies participation, but not participation for participations sake. Citizen participation in a democratic society must be based on informed, critical reflection, and on the understanding and acceptance of the rights and respon sibilities that go with that membership. Civic education in a democratic society most assuredly needs to be concerned with promoting understanding of the ideals of democracy and a reasoned commitment to the values and principles of democracy. That does not mean, however, that democracy should be presented as utopia. Democracy is not utopian, and citizens need to understand that lest they become cynical, apathetic, or simply withdraw from political life when their unrealistic expectations are not met. To be effective civic education must be realistic; it must address the central truths about political life. The American Political Science Association (APSA) recently formed a Task Force on Civic Education. Its statement of purpose calls for more realistic teaching about the nature of political life and a better understanding of the complex elements of the art of the possible. The APSA report faults existing civic education because all too often itseems unable to counter the belief that, in politics, one either wins or loses, a nd to win means getting everything at once, now! The sense that politics can always bring another day, another chance to be heard, to persuade and perhaps to gain part of what one wants, is lost. Political education today seems unable to teach the lessons of our political history: Persistent civic engagement-the slow, patient building of first coalitions and then majorities-can generate social change. (Carter and Elshtain, 1997.)A message of importance, therefore, is that politics need not, indeed must not, be a zero-sum game. The idea that winner takes all has no place in a democracy, because if losers lose all they will opt out of the democratic game. Sharing is essential in a democratic society-the sharing of power, of resources, and of responsibilities. In a democratic society the possibility of effecting social change is ever present, if citizens have the knowledge, the skills and the will to bring it about. That knowledge, those skills and the will or necessary traits of priva te and public character are the products of a good civic education. III. What are essential components of a good civic education?What are the essential components of civic education appropriate for a democratic society? That question was addressed recently in the course of the development of the National Standards for Civics and Government. (Center for Civic Education, 1994.) More than 3,000 individuals and groups participated in the development and/or review process. Those voluntary standards which have been well received and critically acclaimed, not only in the country of their origin but in many other nations as well, identify three essential components: civic knowledge, civic skills, and civic dispositions. Civic Knowledge Civic knowledge is concerned with the content or what citizens ought to know; the subject matter, if you will. In both the National Standards and the Civics Framework for the 1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which currently is underway in schools across the United States, the knowledge component is embodied in the form of five significant and enduring questions. These are questions that have continued to engage not only political philosophers and politicians; they are questions that do-or should-engage every thoughtful citizen. The five questions are:What are civic life, politics, and government?What are the foundations of the American political system?How does the government established by the Constitution embody the purposes, values, and principles of American democracy?What is the relationship of the United States to other nations and to world affairs?What are the roles of citizens in American democracy? The choice of question format as a me ans of organizing the knowledge component was deliberate. Democracy is a dialogue, a discussion, a deliberative process in which citizens engage. The use of questions is intended to indicate that the process is never-ending, is an on-going marketplace of ideas, a search for new and better ways to realize democracys ideals. It is important that everyone has an opportunity to consider the essential questions about government and civil society that continue to challenge thoughtful people. Addressing the first organizing question What are civic life, politics, and government? helps citizens make informed judgments about the nature of civic life, politics, and government, and why politics and government are necessary; the purposes of government; the essential characteristics of limited and unlimited government; the nature and purposes of constitutions, and alternative ways of organizing constitutional governments. Consideration of this question should promote greater understanding of the nature and importance of civil society or the complex network of freely formed, voluntary political, social, and economic associations which is an essential component of a constitutional democracy. A vital civil society not only prevents the abuse or excessive concentration of power by government; the organizations of civil society serve as public laboratories in which citizens learn democracy by doing it. The second organizing question What are the foundations of the American political system? entails an understanding of the historical, philosophical, and economic foundations of the American political system; the distinctive characteristics of American society and political culture; and the values and principles basic to American constitutional democracy, such as individual rights and responsibilities, concern for the public good, the rule of law, justice, equality, diversity, truth, patriotism, federalism, and the separation of powers. This question promotes examination of the values and principles expressed in such fundamental documents as the Declaration of Independence, the U.S. Constitution, The Federalist Papers, and landmark Supreme Court decisions. Study of the nations core documents now is mandated by several states including California, Ohio, South Carolina, Florida, and Kentucky. The United States Commission on Immigration Reform in its 1997 Report to Congress (U.S. Commiss ion on Immigration, 1997), strongly recommended attention to the nations founding documents saying:Civic instruction in public schools should be rooted in the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution-particularly the Preamble, the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment. Emphasizing the ideals in these documents is in no way a distortion of U.S. history. Instruction in the history of the United States, as a unique engine of human liberty notwithstanding its faults, is an indispensable foundation for solid civics training for all Americans. Knowledge of the ideals, values, and principles set forth in the nations core documents serves an additional and useful purpose. Those ideals, values, and principles are criteria which citizens can use to judge the means and ends of government, as well as the means and ends of the myriad groups that are part of civil society. The third organizing question How does the government established by the Constitution embody the purposes, values, and principles of American democracy? helps citizens understand and evaluate the limited government they have ordained and established and the complex dispersal and sharing of powers it entails. Citizens who understand the justification for this system of limited, dispersed, and shared power and its design are better able to hold their governments-local, state, and national-accountable and to ensure that the rights of individuals are protected. They also will develop a considered appreciation of the place of law in the American political system, as well as of the unparalleled opportunities for choice and citizen participation that the system makes possible. The fourth organizing question What is the relationship of the United States to other nations and to world affairs? is important because the United States does not exist in isolation; it is a part of an increasingly interconnected world. To make judgments about the role of the United States in the world today and about what course American foreign policy should take, citizens need to understand the major elements of international relations and how world affairs affect their own lives, and the security and well being of their communities, state, and nation. Citizens also need to develop a better understanding of the roles of major international governmental and non governmental organizations, because of the increasingly significant role that they are playing in the political, social, and economic realms. The final organizing question What are the roles of citizens in American democracy? is of particular importance. Citizenship in a constitutional democracy means that each citizen is a full and equal member of a self governing community and is endowed with fundamental rights and entrusted with responsibilities. Citizens should understand that through their involvement in political life and in civil society, they can help to improve the quality of life in their neighborhoods, communities, and nation. If they want their voices to be heard, they must become active participants in the political process. Although elections, campaigns, and voting are central to democratic institutions, citizens should learn that beyond electoral politics many participatory opportunities are open to them. Finally, they should come to understand that the attainment of individual goals and public goals tend to go hand in hand with participation in political life and civil society. They are more likely to achie ve personal goals for themselves and their families, as well as the goals they desire for their communities, state, and nation, if they are informed, effective, and responsible citizens. Civic Skills: Intellectual and Participatory The second essential component of civic education in a democratic society is civic skills. If citizens are to exercise their rights and discharge their responsibilities as members of self-governing communities, they not only need to acquire a body of knowledge such as that embodied in the five organizing questions just described; they also need to acquire relevant intellectual and participatory skills. Intellectual skills in civics and government are inseparable from content. To be able to think critically about a political issue, for example, one must have an understanding of the issue, its history, its contemporary relevance, as well as command of a set of intellectual tools or considerations useful in dealing with such an issue. The intellectual skills essential for informed, effective, and responsible citizenship sometimes are called critical thinking skills. The National Standards for Civics and Government and the Civics Framework for the 1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) categorize these skills as identifying and describing; explaining and analyzing; and evaluating, taking, and defending positions on public issues. A good civic education enables one to identify or give the meaning or significance of things that are tangible such as the flag, national monuments, or civic and political events. It also enables one to give the meaning or significance of intangibles, such as ideas or concepts including patriotism, majority and minority rights, civil society, and constitutionalism. The ability to identify emotional language and symbols is of particular importance for citizens. They need to be able to discern the true purposes for which emotive language and symbols are being employed. Another intellectual skill which good civic education fosters is that of describing. The ability to describe functions and processes such as legislative checks and balances or judicial review is indicative of understanding. Discerning and describing trends, such as participation in civic life, immigration, or employment helps the citizen fit current events into a longer term pattern. Good civic education seeks to develop competence in explaining and analyzing. If citizens can explain how something should work, for example the American federal system, the legal system, or the system of checks and balances, they will be more able to detect and help correct malfunctions. Citizens also need to be able to analyze such things as the components and consequences of ideas, social, political, or economic processes, and institutions. The ability to analyze enables one to distinguish between fact and opinion or between means and ends. It also helps the citizen to clarify responsibilities such as those between personal and public responsibilities or those between elected or appointed officials and citizens. In a self-governing society citizens are decision-makers. They need, therefore, to develop and continue to improve their skills of evaluating, taking, and defending positions. These skills are essential if citizens are to assess issues on the public agenda, to make judgments about issues and to discuss their assessment with others in public or private. In addition to the acquisition of knowledge and intellectual skills, education for citizenship in a democratic society must focus on skills that are required for informed, effective, and responsible participation in the political process and in civil society. Those skills can be categorized as interacting, monitoring, and influencing. Interacting pertains to the skills citizens need to communicate and to work cooperatively with others. To interact is to be responsive to ones fellow citizens. To interact is to question, to answer, and to deliberate with civility, as well as to build coalitions and to manage conflict in a fair, peaceful manner. Monitoring politics and government refers to the skills citizens need to track the handling of issues by the political process and by government. Monitoring also means the exercising of oversight or watchdog functions on the part of citizens. Finally, the participatory skill of influencing refers to the capacity to affect the processes of politi cs and governance, both the formal and the informal processes of governance in the community. It is essential that the development of participatory skills begins in the earliest grades and that it continues throughout the course of schooling. The youngest pupils can learn to interact in small groups or committees, to pool information, exchange opinions or formulate plans of action commensurate with their maturity. They can learn to listen attentively, to question effectively, and to manage conflicts through mediation, compromise, or consensus-building. Older students can and should be expected to develop the skills of monitoring and influencing public policy. They should learn to research public issues using electronic resources, libraries, the telephone, personal contacts, and the media. Attendance at public meetings ranging from student councils to school boards, city councils, zoning commissions, and legislative hearings ought to be a required part of every high school students experience. Observation of the courts and exposure to the workings of the judicial system also o ught to be a required part of their civic education. Observation in and of itself is not sufficient, however. Students not only need to be prepared for such experiences, they need well planned, structured opportunities to reflect on their experiences under the guidance of knowledgeable and skillful mentors. If citizens are to influence the course of political life and the public policies adopted, they need to expand their repertoire of participatory skills. Voting certainly is an important means of exerting influence; but it is not the only means. Citizens also need to learn to use such means as petitioning, speaking, or testifying before public bodies, joining ad-hoc advocacy groups, and forming coalitions. Like the skills of interacting and monitoring, the skill of influencing can and should be systematically developed. Civic Dispositions: Essential Traits of Private and Public Character The third essential component of civic education, civic dispositions, refers to the traits of private and public character essential to the maintenance and improvement of constitutional democracy. Civic dispositions, like civic skills, develop slowly over time and as a result of what one learns and experiences in the home, school, community, and organizations of civil society. Those experiences should engender understanding that democracy requires the responsible self governance of each individual; one cannot exist without the other. Traits of private character such as moral responsibility, self discipline, and respect for the worth and human dignity of every individual are imperative. Traits of public character are no less consequential. Such traits as public spiritedness, civility, respect for the rule of law, critical mindedness, and willingness to listen, negotiate, and compromise are indispensable to democracys success. computers EssayIn a survey conducted in late 1997, (National Constitution Center, 1997), more than 90 percent of Americans agreed that the U.S. Constitution is important to me and that Im proud of the U.S. Constitution. The National Constitution Center was created by Congress in 1988 to increase Americans awareness of the document. The Center measures public awareness by conducting surveys. Those surveys have shown that people have an appalling lack of knowledge for a document that impacts their daily lives. According to Mayor Edward G. Rendell of Philadelphia, current chairman of the Center, more than three quarters (83 percent) admit that they know only some or very little about the specifics of the Constitution. For example, only 6 percent can name all four rights guaranteed by the First Amendment; 62 percent cannot name all three branches of the Federal government; 35 percent believe the Constitution mandates English as the official language; and more than half of Americans don t know the number of senators. When asked to identify the causes of American ignorance of the document which they profess to revere and which they acknowledge matters a great deal in their daily lives, Rendell faulted the schools failure to teach civics and government. He said he believed Americans lack of knowledge stems partly from an education system that tends to treat the Constitution in the context of history, rather than as a living document that shapes current events. (Morin, 1997.) U.S. Secretary of Education, Richard W. Riley was equally dismayed by the results of the National Constitution Centers study. In a press release issued September 15, 1997, Riley saidThis poll suggests to me that most Americans seem to regard the Constitution like a family heirloom that is kept protectively in an upstairs sock drawer but never taken out and examined. I believe this lack of knowledge about how the Constitution functions leads to many of the discontents in our nation and current levels of distrust toward our natio nal government. Riley went on to say that: The U.S. Department of Education is one of the leading contributors to current efforts to overcome this lack of awareness about how our democracy functions. The Department support(s) the work of the Center for Civic Education, the We the People organization and the many efforts by our nations civics teachers to educate our young people about our democracy. It is clear to me, however, that we have to do much more to keep the spirit of the Constitution alive for all Americans. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is a survey mandated by the U.S. Congress to collect and report information about student achievement in various academic subjects. NAEP sometimes is called The Nations Report Card, because for more than 25 years it has provided Americans with information about how much and how well students are learning in mathematics, science, reading, history, geography, and other subjects. Currently NAEP is assessing civics. Results of the 1998 survey will not be available until late 1999 or early in the year 2000. The 1990 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Report Card in Civics, however, revealed that students have only a superficial knowledge of civics and lack depth of understanding. For example, only 38 percent of 8th graders knew that Congress makes laws; and nearly half of high school seniors did not recognize typical examples of the federal system of checks and balances. Although half of the high school seniors tested displayed a detailed knowledge of major government structures and their functions, only six percent demonstrated a more developed understanding of a wide range of political institutions and processes. The same NAEP Report Card also showed that although some students made gains in civics proficiency across the twelve year period separating the 1976 and 1988 assessments, most did not. At age 17, the performance of students attending schools in each of the types of communities studied-advantaged and disadvantaged, urban and other-declined significantly. There were significant gaps in the performance of most students. Particularly disturbing were the disparities among subpopulations. Eighth and twelfth grade males were more likely than their female peers to reach the highest levels of civic proficiency as defined by NAEP. The percentages of Black and Hispanic students who reached the uppermost levels of proficiency were far smaller than the percentage of White students who did. Over the past decade, dozens of studies, commissions, and national reports have called attention to the failure to ensure that Americas classrooms are staffed with qualified teachers. The National Commission on Teaching Americas Future (1996) in a particularly hard-hitting report noted that:Although no state will allow a person to fix plumbing, guard swimming pools, style hair, write wills, design a building, or practice medicine without completing training and passing an examination, more than 40 states allow school districts to hire teachers on emergency licenses who have not met these basic requirements. Some pay more attention to the qualifications of veterinarians treating the nations cats and dogs than to those of teachers educating the nations children and youth. Teacher expertise, as research has consistently and repeatedly shown, is one of the most telling factors in raising student achievement. One extensive study found that nearly 40 percent of the differences in student test scores were attributable to differences in teacher expertise, as measured by college degrees, years of teaching experience, and scores on teacher licensing examinations. Further, teacher expertise was of more significance than that of any other factor, including parent education, family income, or other socioeconomic characteristics. A recent review of research on one of the least recognized causes of poor quality teaching (Ingersoll, 1998) is sobering. The problem is out-of-field teaching, or teachers being assigned to teach subjects that do not match their training or education. It is more widespread and more serious than has been recognized. It happens in well over half of the secondary schools in the nation in any given year, both rural and urban, affluent and low income. Low income public schools, however, have a higher level of out-of-field teaching than do schools in more affluent communities. Studies also show that recently hired teachers are more often assigned to teach subjects for which they are not trained than are experienced teachers. Lower-achieving classes are more often taught by teachers without a major or minor in the field than are higher-achieving classes. Junior high and middle school classes also are more likely than senior high classes to be taught by less than qualified teachers. More than half of all secondary school history students in the country now are being taught by teachers with neither a major nor a minor in history. No data currently are available on the subject matter qualifications of teachers of civics and government, but one could surmise that the numbers of teachers with majors or minors in political science or allied fields would be even less. In an effort to ensure that teachers are qualified for the subjects they will teach, some states have begun to test applicants for teaching positions. The National Center for Education Statistics reported in 1997 that about one half of the nations school districts now require passage of state tests of basic skills while 39 percent require passage of state tests of subject knowledge. While those efforts are a step in the right direction, they fall short of the goal of assuring that all children are taught by teachers who not only have in-depth knowledge of the subject they teach but who also have the skills and the enthusiasm to teach it well. VI. What is the relationship between civic education and character education?Interest in and concern about character education and education for citizenship are not new in America. The two have always gone hand in hand. Indeed, the basic reason for establishing and expanding public schooling was to foster those traits of public and private chara cter necessary for our great experiment in self-government to succeed. In the early days of our republic, schools were expected to induce pupils to act virtuously. Acting virtuously meant more specifically that one should act with due restraint over his or her impulses, due regard for the rights and opinions of others, and reasonable concern for the probable and the long-term consequences of ones actions. Virtue in individuals then was seen as an important public matter. Public virtue cannot exist in a nation without private said John Adams. Jefferson agreed with him saying Public virtue is the only foundation of Republics. There must be a positive passion for the public good, the public interest established in the minds of the people, or there can be no Republican government, no any real Liberty. It is interesting to note that Adams warning is echoed in the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 1996) Position Statement Fostering Civic Virtue: Character Education in the Social Studies. That bold and well-written position statement concludes with these words:Social studies teachers have a responsibility and a duty to refocus their classrooms on the teaching of character and civic virtue. They should not be timid or hesitant about working toward these goals. The fate of the American experiment in self-government depends in no small part on the store of civic virtue that resides in the American people. The social studies profession of this nation has vital role to play in keeping this well-spring of civic virtue flowing. Character, however, does not come pre-packaged. Character formation is a lengthy and complex process. And, as James Q. Wilson (Wilson, 1995), a life-long student of character, reminds us; We do not know how character is formed in any scientifically rigorous sense. But there is an abundance of anecdotal data and research on which to draw. Those observations and that research tell us that the study of traditional school subjects such as government, civics, history and literature, when properly taught, provide the necessary conceptual framework for character education. Further, those traditional school subjects provide a context for considering the traits of public and private character which are important to the maintenance and improvement of a democratic way of life. Research also tells us that the ethos or culture of the school and of the classroom exert powerful influences on what students learn about authority, responsibility, justice, civility and respect. Finally, we know that one dynamic by which individuals acquire desired traits of private and public character is through exposure to attractive models of behavior. Probably no one has explained that dynamic better than Robert Coles in The Moral Intelligence of Children, (Coles, 1997). Coles tells us that:Character is ultimately who we are expressed in action, in how we live, in what we do and so the children around us know, they absorb and take stock of what they observe, namely us-we adults living and doing things in a certain spirit, getting on with one another in our various ways. Our children add up, imitate, file away what theyve observed and so very often later fall in line with the particular moral counsel we unwittingly or quite unself-consciously have offered them. Because the United States is the worlds oldest constitutional democracy, it sometimes is easy to forget that our American government is an experiment. It is an experiment that requires, as the authors of the Federalist Papers put it, a higher degree of virtue in its citizens than any other form of government. Traits of private character such as moral responsibility, self-discipline, and respect for individual worth and human dignity are essential to its well-being. American constitutional democracy cannot accomplish its purposes, however, unless its citizens also are inclined to participate thoughtfully in public affairs. Traits of public character such as public-spiritedness, civility, respect for law, critical-mindedness, and a willingness to negotiate and compromise are indispensable to the continued success of the great American experiment in self government. How can civic education strengthen and complement the development of character? Primary responsibility for the cultivation of ethical behavior and the development of private character, including moral character, lies with families, religious institutions, work settings, and the other parts of civil society. Schools, however, can and should play a major role in the overall development of the character of students. Effective civic education programs should provide students with many opportunities for the development of desirable traits of public and private character. Learning activities such as the following tend to promote character traits needed to participate effectively. For example,Civility, courage, self-discipline, persistence, concern for the common good, respect for others, and other traits relevant to citizenship can be promoted through cooperative learning activities and in class meetings, student councils, simulated public hearings, mock trials, mock elections, and student courts. Self-discipline, respect for others, civility, punctuality, personal responsibility, and other character traits can be fostered in school and community service learning projects, such as tutoring younger students, caring for the school environment, and participating in voter registration drives. Recognition of shared values and a sense of community can be encouraged through celebration of national and state holidays, and celebration of the achievements of classmates and local citizens. Attentiveness to public affairs can be encouraged by regular discussions of significant current events. Reflection on ethical considerations can occur when students are asked to evaluate, take, and defend positions on issues that involve ethical considerations, that is, issues concerning good and bad, rights and wrong. Civicmindedness can be increased if schools work with civic organizations,bring community leaders into the classroom to discuss issues with students, and provide opportunities for students to observe and/or participate in civic organizations. VII. Policy RecommendationsSchool Level Sustained and systematic attention should be given to civic education in the K-12 curriculum. Although the National Education Goals, as well as the goals, curricular requirements, and policies of every state, express the need for and extol the value of civic education, this vital part of the students overall education is seldom given sustained and systematic attention in the K-12 curriculum. Inattention to civic education stems in part from the false assumption that the knowledge and skills citizens need emerge as by-products of the study of other disciplines or as an outcome of the process of schooling itself. While it is true that history, economics, literature, and other subjects do enhance students understanding of government and politics, they cannot replace sustained, systematic attention to civic education. Civics should be seen as a central concern from kindergarten through twelfth grade, whether it is taught as a part of other curricula or in separate units or courses. We recommend that states and school districts give serious consideration to the allocation of sufficient time for civics and government. A proposed allocation is offered below for purposes of stimulating discussion. REFERENCESBarber, B.(1992). An Aristocracy of Everyone; The Politics of Education and the Future of America. New York: Ballantine Books. Bellah, R.N., Madsen, R., Swidler, A., Lipton, S.M.(1985). Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Bennett, W.J.(1992). The De-Valuing of America: The Fight for Our Culture and Our Children. 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Housed at Teachers College, Columbia Universi